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MEXICO AND HER 

PEOPLE OF TO-DAY 



The Works of 
NEVIN O. WINTER 



The following titles each $3.00 

Mexico and Her People of To-day 
Guatemala and Her People of To-day 
Brazil and Her People of To-day 
Argentina and Her People of To-day 
Chile and Her People of To-day 
The Russian Empire of To-day and 

Yesterday 
Poland of To-day and Yesterday 

The following titles $3.50 
Florida, The Land of Enchantment 
Texas, The Marvellous 

THE PAGE COMPANY 
53 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. 




A BELLK OF TEHUANTEPEC {See page 180) 



MEXICO AND 

HER PEOPLE 

OF TO-DAY 

AN ACCOUNT OF THE 

CUSTOMS, CHARACTERISTICS, AMUSE- 
MENTS, HISTORY AND ADVANCEMENT 
OE THE MEXICANS, AND THE DEVELOP- 
MENT AND RESOURCES OF THEIR 
COUNTRY 



BY 

NEVm 0. WINTER 

ILLUSTRATED FROM ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHS 
BY THE 

AUTHOK AND C. R. BIRT 
^ew l^eviseJ Edition 




BOSTON « • THE PAGE 
COMPANY « MDCCCCXVIII 






Copyright, 1907, 
By The Page Company 

Copyright, igi2. 
By The Page Company 

Copyright, 1918, 
By The Page Company 

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London 
All rights reserved 



Second Impression, May, 1908 
Third Impression, June, 1910 
Fourth Impression, January, 1912 
Fifth Impression, November, 1912 
New Revised Edition, August, 1918 



the colonial press 
c. h. simonds CO., boston, u. s. a. 



AUG !9 1918 
©Ci.A503165 



TO 

iJHV THE MEMORY OF 



PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION 



The changes in Mexico since the Revised Edi- 
tion of 1912 have been many. The interest of 
Americans during these years has been great, 
and at times the feeling toward Mexico has 
been most intense. Lawless acts on the part of 
armed bands of Mexicans became so frequent 
and so serious that only cool heads prevented 
open and bloody conflict between the two na- 
tions. Although an open declaration of war 
was averted, there was an armed intervention 
on the part of the United States and a sending 
of military forces within the territory of our 
neighbouring republic, which differed little 
from a state of actual belligerency. These facts 
and the political mutations have made a second 
revised edition of '* Mexico and Her People of 
To-day " a necessity. The writer has kept in 
close touch with the progress of events in Mex 
ico during the intervening years. He has also 
visited camps of both Villa and Carranza 
troops, which has enabled him to form first- 
hand impressions of the contending forces. In 



viii Preface to Third Edition 



this revision he has endeavoured to set forth 
conditions as they really are, to apply to them 
the teachings of history, and to estimate the 
prospects and probabilities of the future. 

Nevin O. Wintbe. 

Toledo, Ohio, April, 2918. 



PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION 



Since the first publication of '' Mexico and 
Her People of To-day," Mexico has seen stir- 
ring times, and there has been a radical change 
in the government. Revolution again broke 
forth, and the long dictatorship of Porfirio 
Diaz has ended. These conditions have made 
advisable a completely revised edition of this 
work, which the public and the press have 
stamped with their approval to a degree that 
has been most pleasing. To both public and 
press the author desires to return his most 
sincere thanks, and he has in this revision en- 
deavoured to be as accurate and painstaking 
as in the original preparation. Furthermore, 
another trip to that most interesting country 
has enabled the author to give a description of 
a section but briefly treated in the previous 
edition. New appendices have been added, con- 
sisting of a bibliography and a few suggestions 
for those contemplating a trip to Mexico. 

Neviit O. Winter. 

Toledo, Ohio, January, 1912. 



PEEFACE 



Many books have been written about Mexico, 
but several of the best works were written a 
quarter of a century ago and are now out of 
print. This fact and the developments of the 
past few years leads the author to believe that 
there is a field for another book on that most 
interesting country ; a book that should present 
in readable form reliable information concern- 
ing the customs and characteristics of the peo- 
ple of Mexico, as well as the great natural re- 
sources of the country and their present state 
of development, or lack of development. 

It has been the aim of the author to make a 
complete and accurate presentation of the sub- 
ject rather than to advance radical views con- 
cerning and harsh criticism of our next-door 
neighbours. With this idea in mind he has 
read nearly every prominent work on Mexico 
and Mexican history, as well as other current 
periodical literature concerning that country 



xii Preface 

during the two years devoted to the prepara- 
tion of this volume. It is hoped that the wide 
range of subjects, covering the customs, habits, 
amusements, history, antiquities, and resources 
will render the volume of value to any one 
interested in Mexico and her progress. 

If this volume shall aid in any way to a bet- 
ter understanding of Mexico by Americans, or 
in furthering the present progressive move- 
ment in that country, then the author will feel 
amply repaid for the months of labour devoted 
to its preparation. 

The author wishes to make special acknowl- 
edgment of obligation to his friend Mr. C. R. 
Birt, his companion during the greater part of 
his travels through Mexico, and to whose artis- 
tic sense in selection and grouping the excel- 
lence of many of the photographs herewith 
reproduced is due. 

Toledo, Ohio, September, 1907. 



CONTENTS 



I. Aztec Land 
II. Across the Plateaus 

III. The Capital 

IV. The Valley op Anahttac 
V. The Tropics 

VI. A Glimpse op the Oriental in the Occident 

VII. The Isthmus op Tehuantepec 
VIII. In the Footsteps op the Ancients 

IX. Woman and Her Sphere 
X. The Peon .... 

^"^XI, Customs and Characteristics 

"^XII. Holidays and Holy -days 

XIII. A Transplanted Sport . 

XIV. Education and the Arts 
XV. Mines and Mining . 

XVI. Railways and Their Influence 

XVII. Religious Forces 

XVIII. Passing op the Lawless 

XIX. The Story op the Republic 

XX. The Guiding Hand . 

XXI. The Revolution op 1910 

XXII. From Madero to Carranza 

XXIII. The Sierras and Beyond 

XXIV. The Ruined Cities op Yucatan 
XXV. The Mexico op To-day . 

Appendices 

Index .... 



PAGE 

1 

22 
46 
74 
90 
111 
128 
144 
162 
183 
201 
225 
243 
257 
274 
290 
308 
328 

343 

369 

396 

413 

447 

470 

488 

515 

519 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGB 

A Belle op Tehuantepec (See page 180) . Frontispiece 

Snow - capped Popocatapetl 4 

General Map of Mexico 6 

An Indian Maiden 10 

" The Land of Burros and Sombreros " . . .22 

Market Scene in San Luis Potosi 30 

Cock - fighting in Mexico 33 

The Maguey 41 

Map op the Valley of Mexico 46 

The Patio of an Old Residence 48 

The Cathedral 60 

A Picturesque Pulque Shop . . . . . .66 

The Calendar Stone 77 

Scenes on the Viga Canal 82 

Castle op Chapultepec . . .' . . . .86 
Bridge at Orizaba. — The Buzzards op Vera 

Cruz. — Avenue of Palms, Vera Cruz ... 98 
An Indian Home in the Hot Country .... 104 

Rice Culture 109 

The Aqueduct, Oaxaca. — A Fountain in Oaxaca . 116 
The Market - women of Oaxaca. — The Pottery- 
market, Oaxaca 118 

Crossing the River on Market - day .... 121 
The Market, Tehuantepec 132 

XV 



xvi List of Illu,strations 

PAGE 

Entrance to the Underground Chamber, Mitla. 
— North Temple, Mitla. — Hall of the 

Monoliths, Mitla 157 

A Zapoteco Woman 161 

" Plating the Bear " 170 

Washing on the Banks op a Stream .... 177 

A Peon and His Wife 184 

A Cargador 198 

Making Tortillas . . 215 

A Mexican Market 218 

Candy Boy and Girl 220 

Burning an Effigy of Judas at Easter - time . . 233 

Candle Booths in Guadalupe 240 

Beggars of the City of Mexico 242 

Planting the Banderillas 250 

An Aztec Schoolgirl 266 

Peon Miners at Lunch . . . . . . . 280 

Along the Mexican Southern Railway . . . 300 

Wayside Shrine with an Offering of Flowers . . 312 

A RURALE 332 

Army Headquarters, City of Mexico .... 336 

A Village Church 364 

A Company of Ru rales 370 

Sr. Don Francisco I. Madero 411 

President Careanza 419 

A Group of Peons 450 

Tarahumari Indians . . 454 

Crumbling Ruins of the Ancient Mexican Civiliza- 
tion 473 

Primitive Transportation 491 

Primitive Ploughing near Oaxaca 498 



MEXICO AND HER 
PEOPLE TO-DAY 



CHAPTER I 

AZTEC LAND 

Pkescott says: ''Of all that extensive em- 
pire which once acknowledged the authority of 
Spain in the New World, no portion for interest 
and importance, can be compared with Mexico ; 
— and this equally, whether we consider the 
variety of its soil and climate; the inexhausti- 
ble stores of its mineral wealth; its scenery, 
grand and picturesque beyond example; the 
character of its ancient inhabitants, not only 
far surpassing in intelligence that of the other 
North American races, but reminding us, by 
their monuments, of the primitive civilization of 
Egypt and Hindoostan; or, lastly, the peculiar 
circumstances of its conquest, adventurous and 
romantic as any legend devised by Norman or 
Italian bard of chivalry.'* 



2 Mexico and Her People To-day 

Mexico is a country in which the old predom- 
inates. The American visitor will bring back 
more distinct recollections of the Egyptian 
carts and plows, the primitive manners and 
customs, than he will of the evidences of mod- 
ern civilization. An educated Mexican whom 
I met, chided the Americans for this tendency, 
for, said he, " all that is written of Mexico is 
descriptive of the Indians and their habits, 
while progressive Mexico is ignored." This is 
to a great extent true, for it is the unique and 
ancient that attracts and holds the attention of 
the traveller. For this reason tourists go to 
Egypt to see the pyramids, sphinx and tombs 
of the Pharaohs. 

It is not necessary for the traveller to ven- 
ture out upon perilous seas to see mute evi- 
dences of a life older than printed record. In 
this land of ancient civilization and primitive 
customs, there are cities which stand out like 
oriental pearls transplanted to the Occident 
from the shores of the Red Sea. Here in 
Mexico can be found pyramids which are no 
mean rivals to those great piles on the Egyp- 
tian deserts; crumbling ruins of tombs, and 
palaces, and temples, ornamented in arabesque 
and grecque designs, not unlike the structures 
along the banks of the mighty Nile; and the 



Aztec Land 



same primitive implements of husbandry 
which, we have viewed so often in the pages of 
the large family Bible. Then, as an additional 
attraction, there is the actual presence of the 
aborigines, Aztec, Zapotec, and Chichimec, 
speaking the same language, observing the 
same ceremonies, and following the same cus- 
toms which were old when the foreigners 
came. 

There is no history to enlighten us as to the 
age of these monuments, and there are few 
hieroglyphics to be deciphered upon which a 
Eosetta Stone might shed light. The student 
is led to wonder whether the Egyptian civiliza- 
tion antedated the Mexican, or whether the 
former is simply the Mexican learning and 
skill transplanted to the Orient and there modi- 
fied and improved. It is quite possible, that, 
while our own ancestors were still barbarians, 
and little better than savages, swarming over 
northern Europe, the early races in Mexico 
had developed a civilization advanced and pro- 
gressive. They knew how to build monuments 
which in masonry and carving teach us lessons 
to-day. They made beautiful pottery and 
artistic vessels, and they used gold for money 
and ornaments. 

Notwithstanding the fact that for a thou- 



4 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
sand miles the republics of Mexico and the 
United States join, the average American 
knows less concerning Mexico than he does of 
many European countries ; and it is much mis- 
understood as well as misrepresented. Mexico 
possesses the strongest possible attractions for 
the tourist. Its scenic wonders are unsurpassed 
in any other part of the globe in natural pic- 
turesqueness ; and no country in Europe pre- 
sents an aspect more unfamiliar and strange 
to American eyes, or exceeds it in historic in- 
terest. 

Vast mountains including snow-capped Po- 
pocatapetl and Ixtaccihuatl, the loftiest peaks 
on the American continent, are seen here amid 
scenes of tropical beauty and luxuriance. 
Great cities are found with their customs and 
characteristics almost unchanged since they 
were built by the Spaniards; and there are 
still more ancient cities and temples which 
were built by prehistoric races. 

It is a land of tradition and romance, and of 
picturesque contrasts. At almost every turn 
there is something new, unique, interesting, and 
even startling. It has all the climates from the 
torrid zone to regions of perpetual snow on the 
summits of the lofty volcanic peaks, and is 
capable of producing nearly every fruit found 



Aztec Land 5 

between the equator and the Arctic circle. The 
softness and sweetness of the air; the broken 
and ever-varying line of rugged hills against 
a matchless sky; the beautiful views between 
the mountain ranges; the care-free life which 
is omnipresent each add their charm to the 
composite picture. Dirt is everywhere and 
poverty abounds, but even these are removed 
from the commonplace by the brilliant colour 
on every hand. 

F. Hopkinson Smith in " A White Umbrella 
in Mexico " epitomizes this marvellously at- 
tractive country as follows : ' ' A land of white 
sunshine, redolent with flowers ; a land of gay 
costumes, crumbling churches, and old con- 
vents; a land of kindly greetings, of extreme 
courtesy, of open, broad hospitality. It was 
more than enough to revel in an Italian sun, 
lighting up a semi-tropical land; to look up 
to white-capped peaks, towering into blue ; to 
look down upon wind-swept plains, encircled by 
ragged chains of mountains; to catch the 
sparkle of miniature cities, jewelled here and 
there in oases of olive and orange ; and to real- 
ize that to-day, in its varied scenery, costumes, 
architecture, street life, canals crowded with 
flower-laden boats, market plazas thronged 
with gaily-dressed natives, faded church inte- 



6 Mexico and Her People To-day 

riors, and abandoned convents, Mexico is the 
most marvellously picturesque country under 
tlie sun. A tropical Venice ! A semi-barbarous 
Spain ! A new Holy Land. ' ' 

Mexico contains a greater area than is gen- 
erally understood. It is shaped very much like 
a cornucopia with an extreme length of nine- 
teen hundred miles, a breadth of seven hun- 
dred and fifty miles, and an area of nearly 
eight hundred thousand square miles. At its 
narrowest point, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 
it is only one hundred and twenty-five miles 
across from ocean to ocean. There is a double 
range of mountains, one near the Pacific coast 
and the other near the coast of the Gulf of 
Mexico, between which lie the great table lands, 
or plateaus, which constitute a large part of 
the surface. 

Three distinct climates are found in Mexico 
determined by altitude. Those regions six 
thousand feet or more above sea level are 
called the tierras frias, or cold lands. This is 
only a relative term, for the cold does not corre- 
spond with that of our own northern states. 
Though termed ' ' cold, ' ' the mean temperature 
is not lower than that of Central Italy. Those 
lands lying at an altitude of six thousand feet, 
down to three thousand feet, above sea level 







o 



Aztec Land 7 

are termed the tierras templadas, or temperate 
lands. This is a region of perpetual humidity 
and is semi-tropical in its vegetation and tem- 
perature. An altitude from four thousand to 
six thousand feet in Mexico gives a most de- 
lightful climate. 

Along both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts 
there is a more or less broad tract called the 
tierra caliente, or hot land, which is a truly 
tropical region. Forests of dense growth cover 
the soil, so thick that it is impossible to pene- 
trate them without blazing your way as you go, 
and in the midst of which tower trees of mag- 
nificent size, such as are to be seen only in the 
tropics. Here it is that nature is over-prodigal 
in her gifts ; and here it is that the vomito, as 
yellow fever is called, lurks with fatal effect. 
The winds from the sea generally mitigate the 
fierce heat, especially if one can remain out of 
the sun during the middle of the day. Some- 
times these winds on the Atlantic coast acquire 
great velocity, and burst forth upon the un- 
protected shores with terrific fury as the so- 
called " northers." There is no true winter 
here, but there is a rainy season from June to 
October, and a dry season from November to 
May, the former being the colder. 

'' In the course of a few hours," says Pres- 



8 Mexico and Her People To-day 

cott, " the traveller may experience every gra- 
dation of climate, embracing torrid heat and 
glacial cold, and pass through different zones 
of vegetation including wheat and the sugar- 
cane, the ash and the palm, apples, olives, and 
guavas." The dwellings vary also. In the hot 
lands the habitations are constructed of bam- 
boo and light poles open to sun and wind, for 
the only shelter needed is protection from the 
elements ; in the temperate region the huts are 
made of heavier poles, and are somewhat more 
durable ; in the higher lands they are built of 
adobe or stone. Sugar cane and coffee, and 
even the banana, will grow up to four thou- 
sand feet. Wheat grows best at six thousand 
feet and pines commence here too. At seven 
thousand feet cactus appears, and the maguey, 
ushering in an entirely different zone. Mexico 
is a country of extremes of heat and cold, pov- 
erty and riches, filth and cleanliness, education 
and extreme ignorance. 

Every schoolboy knows of Loch Katrine and 
Loch Lomond in bonnie Scotland, and most peo- 
ple are familiar with the location of Lago di 
Como, in Italy. And yet I should not be 
surprised if fair-sized towns could be found 
in the United States where no one could tell 
whether such a body of water as Lake Chapala 



Aztec Land 9 



existed or not. As a matter of fact it is ten 
times as large as all the lakes of Northern 
Italy combined ; and it embraces islands larger 
than the entire surface of Loch Lomond. Its 
steely blue waters and rugged shores need 
only the magic pen of the novelist or poet to 
tell of its beauties and invest each nook and 
glen with romance, and the charming villas 
of Como to make Chapala as picturesque and 
fascinating as those better known lakes. It is 
almost a hundred miles long and thirty-three 
miles wide at the widest point, and covers four- 
teen hundred square miles. Patzcuaro and 
Cuitzeo are also lakes of considerable size near 
Chapala, and all of them are six thousand feet 
or more above sea level. They only await de- 
velopment and advertising to become popular 
resorts. 

The vast majority of the inhabitants of Mex- 
ico are descendants of Indian races who were 
found there by the Spanish conquerors, and 
mixtures of those natives with European set 
tiers. Of the fourteen millions of inhabitants 
only about nineteen per cent, are white ; of the 
remainder, forty-three per cent, are Indians and 
thirty-eight per cent, mixed. There is a greater 
resemblance of the Mexican Indians to the 
Malay races of Asia than to the American In- 



10 Mexico and Her People To-day 

dians. Their intensely black hair and eyes, 
brown complexion, small statnre, and even a 
slight obliquity of the eyes bear a strong re- 
semblance to the Japanese. I have seen it 
stated that, if a Japanese is dressed in Mexican 
costume, and a Mexican in Japanese dress, it 
is difficult to tell which is the Jap and which 
the Mexican. Students of languages say that 
there is a strong similarity between the Mex- 
ican tongues and oriental languages. The dif- 
ferent tribes do not mingle much and seldom 
intermarry, and this fact may contribute to 
their physical deterioration. 

Whence came this people! No one can as- 
swer. It is generally supposed that the Aztecs 
came from what are now the south-westtem 
states of the Union, and wandered into the 
Valley of Mexico. They were defeated by the 
tribes then dwelling there, and sought refuge 
on the shores of Lake Texcoco. There they 
beheld a golden eagle of great size and beauty 
resting on a prickly cactus and devouring a 
serpent which it held in its talons, and with its 
wings outstretched toward the rising sun. This 
was the sign for which they had been looking, 
and there they proceeded to erect their capital. 
They first built houses of rushes and reeds in 
the shallow water and lived upon fish, and con- 













AN INDIAN MAIDEN 



Aztec Land 11 



structed floating gardens. As the waters re- 
ceded somewhat they built more durable struc- 
tures, including great palaces and temples. 
They extended their sway over neighbouring 
races beyond the Valley and conquered tribe 
after tribe, although never claiming dominion 
over more than a small portion of the present 
confines of Mexico. The legend of the eagle 
and the cactus is still preserved in the coat-of- 
arms of the present republic. 

Of the Aztecs and their history prior to the 
conquest little is known, except that the coun- 
try was called Anahuac. Prescott has made 
his " Conquest of Mexico " as fascinating as 
a novel, but he has shown the romantic side 
based upon knowledge of the most fragmentary 
character. The writings which pass for history 
were either written by bigoted priests who could 
not see anything good in an idolatrous people, 
and who, to please the leaders, painted the Az- 
tecs in blackest colours to justify the cruel 
measures taken, or they were written by Span- 
iards who never visited the country of which 
they presumed to write. As it has been said, 
** a most gorgeous superstructure of fancy has 
been raised upon a very meagre foundation 
of fact." Their civilization was in many re- 
spects marvellous and far ahead of that of any 



12 Mexico and Her People To-day 

other race on the western hemispliere. Under 
the Montezumas they had grown into a power- 
ful nation, and their rule was one of barbaric 
splendour and luxury. 

The Aztecs succeeded an older race called the 
Toltecs who were also far advanced in civiliza- 
tion. They were nature worshippers and not 
only did not indulge in human sacrifices, but 
were averse to war and detested falsehood and 
treachery. A Toltec noble is said to have in- 
structed, his son after the following manner 
before sending him away from home: '' Never 
tell a falsehood, because a lie is a grievous sin ! 
Speak ill of nobody. Be not dissolute, for 
thereby thou wilt incense the gods, and they 
will cover thee with infamy. Steal not, nor 
give thyself up to gaming ; otherwise thou wilt 
be a disgrace to thy parents, whom thou ought- 
est rather to honour, for the education they 
have given thee. If thou wilt be virtuous, thy 
example will put the wicked to shame. ' ' 

Both of these races were also great builders 
and sculptors and had cultivated the art of 
picture-writing. They were well housed, de- 
cently clothed, made cloth, enjoyed vapour 
baths, maintained schools, and had a large as- 
sortment of household gods. They mined some, 



Aztec Land 13 



and in agriculture, at least, were far ahead of 
the Mexicans of to-day. 

The vandalism of the Spaniards in destroy- 
ing the writings and other records of the early 
races is rebuked by Prescott as follows : ' ' We 
contemplate with indignation the cruelties in- 
flicted by the early conquerors. But indigna- 
tion is qualified with contempt when we see 
them thus ruthlessly trampling out the sparks 
of knowledge, the common boon and property 
of mankind. We may well doubt which has 
the strongest claim to civilization, the victor or 
the vanquished." 

The Mexico of to-day cannot be understood 
without looking for a moment at its settlement 
and the manner of the conquest. The Spanish 
conquistadores who flocked to these shores with 
Cortez were a different race from those early 
settlers, who, persecuted and denied liberty of 
conscience in the land of their birth, sought a 
new home on our own hospitable shores. With 
the union of the crowns of Castille and Aragon 
by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and 
the discovery of the New World, Spain had 
suddenly leaped to the front, and become, for 
a time at least, the greatest nation of the day. 
Ships were constructed in great numbers and 



14 Mexico and Her People To-day 

sent out, filled with voyagers, " towards that 
part of the horizon where the sun set. ' ' 

In the sixteenth century she had practically 
become the mistress of the seas and the most 
powerful nation in the world. Her soldiers 
were brave and the acknowledged leaders of 
chivalry, but the curse of the Spaniards was 
their thirst for gold, and her decay was rapid. 
When Cortez and his band of adventurers came 
to the court of Montezuma, and saw the lavish 
display of vessels and ornaments made of the 
precious metal, they thought they had discov- 
ered the land of gold for which they were 
searching. Attracted by the glowing reports 
of untold wealth, thousands of Spaniards soon 
followed the first bands of conquistador es, and 
they rapidly spread over the entire country oc- 
cupied by the Aztecs, ever searching for the 
mines from whence this golden harvest came. 
While the leaders were imprisoning and tor- 
turing the Aztec chieftains to force them to 
give up the hiding places of their treasures, 
the priests, who everywhere accompanied the 
soldiers, were baptizing thousands into the new 
faith and using the confessional for the same 
end. Thus religious bigotry and the mania for 
worldly riches went side by side, and ever ring- 



Aztec Land 15 



ing in the ears of both priest and warrior was 
the refrain: 

"Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold! 
Bright and yellow, hard and cold." 

Shortly after the conquest all the desirable 
lands were parcelled out among the invaders 
and the few Indian caciques who had helped, 
with their powerful influence, in their subju- 
gation. The Spaniards rapidly pacified the 
country, for the Aztec masses, however warlike 
they may have been before the coming of the 
Spaniards, were subdued by one blow. They 
were soon convinced that opposition to the 
power of Spain was useless. The priests, also, 
through their quickly acquired influence, taught 
submission to those whom God, in His infinite 
wisdom, had placed over them. Chiefs who 
would not yield otherwise were bribed to use 
their power over their vassals in favour of the 
Spaniards. Thus by force, bribery, intrigue, 
diplomacy, treachery, and even religion, the 
Indians were reconciled and the spirit of oppo- 
sition to the Spaniards broken. The result was 
a new and upstart nobility who ruled the coun- 
try with an iron hand in the course of a few 
decades; and the natives, with the exception 



16 Mexico and Her People To-day 

of the chiefs, were made vassals of these newly 
made nobles. 

An era of building followed, in which great 
palaces after the grandiose ideas of Spain were 
constructed by Indian workmen. Churches 
were built with lavish hand, for these nobles 
thought to atone for their many misdeeds by 
constructing and dedicating places of worship 
to Almighty God, who, according to the teach- 
ing of the priest, was the God of the poor, op- 
pressed Indian as well as the God of the 
haughty Spaniard who had enslaved him. As 
one writer has said: " When John Smith and 
his followers were looking for gold mines in 
Virginia and the Pilgrims were planting corn in 
Massachusetts, an empire had been founded 
and built up on the same continent by the Span- 
iards, and the most stupendous system of plun- 
der the world ever saw was then and there in 
vigorous operation. ' ' Cortez was searching for 
*' a people who had much gold " of which he 
had heard. It was not God but gold that drew 
him in his campaign over Mexico. He did not 
aim to Christianize the natives so much as en- 
rich himself and acquire empire for his sov- 
ereign, and religion was a subterfuge plausible 
and popular in that age. 

" I die," said the patriot Hidalgo, when about 



Aztec Land 17 



to be executed in 1811, ' ' but the seeds of liberty 
will be watered by my blood. The cause will 
not die ; that still lives and will surely triumph. ' ' 
His prediction came true, and freedom from 
the Spanish yoke of three centuries was se- 
cured ten years later after the shedding of much 
blood. Peace did not follow at once, however, 
for in the fifty years succeeding the declara- 
tion of independence the form of government 
changed ten times, and there were fifty-four 
different rulers, including two emperors and 
a number of dictatorships. Special privileges 
are difficult to eradicate when established by 
long usage, and those enjoying them yield only 
to force. The Church, which had imposed on 
the people such a vast number of priests, friars, 
and nuns, and had acquired the most of the 
wealth of the country, clung with the grip of 
death to its privileges and property. The 
changes came gradually, but it has been a half- 
century since the Church and State were form- 
ally separated by constitutional amendment. 
The bigoted and despotic Romanism, which was 
allied with the Spanish aristocracy, has at last 
been subdued. A more tolerant spirit is spring- 
ing up towards other forms of religious faith 
through the efforts of a powerful and liberal 
government. Education is also freeing the peo- 



18 Mexico and Her People To-day 

pie from the superstitious ignorance which has 
hitherto prevailed in most parts of Mexico. 
There are occasional outbursts of fanaticism, 
but they are quickly suppressed, and the gov- 
ernment is making an honest effort to preserve 
freedom of worship to all faiths. 

The United States of Mexico is a federation 
composed of twenty-seven states, three terri- 
tories, and the federal district in which the cap- 
ital is located. The states are sovereign within 
themselves and are held together under a fed- 
eral constitution very much like our own. This 
constitution was adopted on the 5th of Feb- 
ruary, 1857, and its semi-centennial was re- 
cently celebrated with a few of the original 
signers present. There is a congress composed 
of two bodies, the Senate and Chamber of Dep- 
uties which meets twice each year. Each state 
is represented in the former by two senators 
and in the latter by one representative for 
each forty thousand of population. The right 
of suffrage is restricted so that only a small 
proportion of the population can exercise that 
privilege. They have not really reached pop- 
ular government, and politics, as we know them 
in the United States, do not exist. A presiden- 
tial election scarcely caused a ripple on the sur- 
face. President Diaz was no doubt the popular 



Aztec Land 19 



choice, but comparatively few votes were ever 
cast. No greater vote was polled at the elec- 
tion of his successors. The rule of the Diaz 
government was decidedly autocratic, but no 
more so than his successors and most of his 
predecessors. Diaz always acted through the 
regularly organized channels of a republican 
government, so that outwardly there was little 
semblance of a dictatorship. 

Mexico is a country of great natural re- 
sources and possibilities which have been only 
partially developed. Its soil is remarkably fer- 
tile and could support five times, and, if water 
could be found on the plateaus, ten times the 
present population. And I say this notwith- 
standing the fact that one man has said that 
Mexico is the poorest country south of Grreen- 
land, and north of the south pole. The flora 
of the country, among which are many useful 
and medicinal plants, is exceedingly rich and 
varied. More species of fibre plants are found 
there than in any other country, and the com- 
mercial utility of these plants is not yet fully 
appreciated. In no country has there been 
greater waste of natural resources than the 
Spanish conquerors caused in Mexico. It is 
as a mining country that Mexico has been best 
known and the Mexican silver mines have been 



20 Mexico and Her People To-day 

famous ever since the discovery of the New 
World, and they are still the greatest single 
source of wealth. Some of them which have 
been worked for centuries are still yielding 
small fortunes in the white metal each year. 

The Mexican has his own view of the United 
States and does not call our boasted progress 
and much-vaunted civilization, with its hurry, 
brusque ways and the blotting out of the finer 
courtesies, an improvement. He appreciates 
our mechanical contrivances and electrical in- 
ventions, but prefers to enjoy life after his own 
fashion and in the way he thinks that God 
intended in order to keep men happy. The 
civilization received by Mexico in the sixteenth 
century was looked upon as equal to the best 
in existence, and to this was added an ancient 
civilization found in the country. From these 
sources a manner of living has been evolved 
which bears evidences of culture and refine- 
ment. This system has flowed on through the 
intervening centuries, undisturbed by the 
march of progress, until the last quarter of a 
century. Things cannot be changed to Anglo- 
Saxon standards in a year, or two years, or 
even a generation. To Americanize Mexico 
will be a difficult if not impossible undertaking, 
and there are no signs of such a transition. 



Aztec Land 21 

Americans who live there fall into Mexican 
ways and moral standards more frequently 
than Mexicans are converted to the American 
point of view. The influence of traditions, cus- 
toms; and climate, and the centuries-old habit 
of letting the morrow take care of itself is too 
great to be overcome. 



CHAPTER II 

ACROSS THE PLATEAUS 

The traveller going to Mexico by rail will 
discover that that country begins long before 
the border is reached. While travelling over 
the great state of Texas, where the dialect of 
the natives is as broad as the rolling prairie 
round about, he is reminded of our southern 
neighbour by the soft accents of the Spanish 
language, or by the entrance into the coach 
of a Mexican cowboy with his great hat and 
picturesque suit. Leaving beautiful San An- 
tonio, which is a Spanish city modernized, it is 
but a few hours until the train crosses the 
muddy Rio Grande at Laredo and, after pass- 
ing an imaginary line in the centre of the 
stream, enters the land of burros and som- 
breros, a land of mysterious origin and vast 
antiquity. 

The custom officials are very polite and soon 
affix the necessary label ^' despachado " to the 
baggage. '' Vamonos " (we go) replaces the 

22 



Across the Plateaus 23 

familiar '' all aboard," and the train moves 
out over a country as flat and dreary as a des- 
ert. By whichever route the traveller enters 
Mexico, the journey is very uninteresting for 
the first half day. There is nothing to relieve 
the monotony except the telephone and tele- 
graph poles, with their picturesque cross-arms 
standing out on the desert waste like giant 
sentinels. There is no vegetation except the 
prickly pear, cactus, and feather duster palms, 
for frequently no rain falls for years at a time. 
It seems almost impossible that anything can 
get moisture from the parched air of these 
plains. But nature has strange ways of adapt- 
ing life to conditions. A good illustration of 
this is seen in the ixtle, a species of cactus 
whose leaves look as if they could not absorb 
any moisture because of a hard varnish-like 
coat. Whenever any water in the form of dew 
or rain appears, however, this glaze softens 
and the plant absorbs all the moisture available 
and then glazes over again as soon as the sun 
comes out. 

There is very little life here. Sometimes at 
the stations a few adobe huts are seen wliere 
dwell the section hands, and a few goats are 
visible which, no doubt, find the prickly pear 
and cactus with an occasional railroad spike 



24 Mexico and Her People To-day 

thrown in for variety, much more satisfying 
than an unchanging diet of tin cans such as 
falls to the lot of the city goat. The mountain 
ranges then appear, and never is the traveller 
out of sight of them in Mexico. On either side, 
toward the east and toward the west, is a range 
with an ever varying outline, sometimes near, 
then far, — advancing and retreating. At a dis- 
tance in this clear atmosphere their rough fea- 
tures are mellowed by a soft haze into amethyst 
and purple; nearer they sometimes rise like a 
camp of giants and are the most fantastic 
mountains that earthquakes ever made in sport, 
looking as if nature had laughed herself into 
the convulsions in which they were formed. 

The Mexican National Railway follows a 
broad road that was formerly an Indian trail, 
and the track crosses and recrosses this high- 
way many times. By this same route it is prob- 
able that early Mexican races entered that 
country and marched down toward the Valley 
of Mexico. It was by this way that General 
Taylor invaded the country during the Mexican 
War and several engagements took place along 
the line of this railToad. 

The first town of any size is Monterey, cap- 
ital of the state of Nuevo Leon, the oldest and 
one of the most important cities in Northern 



Across the Plateaus 25 

Mexico. It lies in a lovely valley with high, hills 
on every side. It is at a lower altitude than 
the cities farther south on this line and enjoys 
a salubrious climate. Monterey is a very much 
Americanized town and has great smelters, 
factories, and breweries, but it also boasts of 
beautiful gardens and some old churches. The 
Topo Chico hot springs only a few miles away 
have a great reputation for healing. Here it 
was, in 1846, that General Taylor overcame a 
much superior force of the enemy under Gen- 
eral Ampudia in a desperate and stubbornly 
disputed battle lasting several days, the con- 
test being hotly fought from street to street. 
The Mexican troops entered the houses and 
shot at the American soldiers from the win- 
dows and roofs. It is now a city of more than 
fifty thousand people. 

Leaving Monterey, the road soon begins a 
gradual ascent to the higher plateaus and 
reaches the zone called tierra fria, or cold 
country. This name would seem a misnomer 
to one who hails from the land of snow and ice, 
for the mean temperature of this "cold land " 
is that of a perpetual spring such as is en- 
joyed north of Mason and Dixon's line. It is 
properly applied to all that part of Mexico 
which is six thousand feet or more above the 



26 Mexico and Her People To-day 

level of the sea and the greater part of the 
immense central plateaus comes within this 
designation. These plains which comprise 
about two-thirds of the entire country, are 
formed by the great Andes range of mountains 
which separates into two great cordillerias 
near Oaxaca and gradually grow farther and 
farther apart as they approach the Rio Grande. 
The western branch crowds the shore of the 
Pacific and the eastern follows the coast line 
of the Gulf of Mexico, but the latter keeps at 
a greater distance from the sea, thus giving 
a wider expanse of the hotlands. They are not 
level table-lands, these mesas, as they always 
slope in some direction. The arid condition 
follows as a natural course, for the lofty ranges 
cause the rain to be precipitated on the coast 
lands except during certain seasons in the year 
when the winds change. When the rains do 
come, a miracle is wrought, and the sombre 
landscape blossoms into a lively green dotted 
with flowers. It is rare to find such great 
plains at so high an altitude. Although now al- 
most barren of trees it is probable that in early 
times these tablelands were covered with a 
forest growth principally of oak and cypress. 
This is evidenced by the few groves that yet 
remain, in which many of the trees are of ex- 



Across the Plateaus 27 

traordinary dimensions. The Spaniards com- 
pleted the spoliation that had been begun by 
the earlier races. 

Saltillo, the next important town, is the cap- 
ital of the State of Coahuila. It is interesting 
to Americans, as just a few miles from here 
and near the railway took place the battle of 
Buena Vista, at the village of that name. Here 
the Americans under General Taylor sent 
double their number of -Mexicans under the 
notorious Santa Anna, flying on February 
23rd, 1847. 

Still climbing, the road continues toward the 
capital, passes through a rich mining district, 
and after the Tropic of Cancer is crossed the 
traveller is in the Torrid Zone, the spot being 
marked by a pyramid. Plains, seemingly end- 
less, where for a hundred miles the long stretch 
of track is without a curve, are traversed, and 
so dry that wells and water-tanks are objects 
of interest. It is mostly given up to vast haci- 
endas. Some of these estates still remain in 
the hands of the original families as granted at 
the time of the conquest. 

It was on these vast, seemingly barren pla- 
teaus that the hacienda reached its highest 
development. One does not go far south of 
the Rio Grande before the significance of this 



28 Mexico and Her People To-day 

institution in Mexican life becomes apparent. 
Sometimes when the train stops at a little 
adobe station with a long name, the traveller 
wonders what is the need of a station; for 
there is no town and only a few native huts 
clustered around the depot. However a glance 
around the horizon will reveal the towers and 
spire of a hacienda nestling at the foot of the 
hills perhaps several miles away. In the olden 
times they took the place of the feudal castles 
of the middle ages in Europe and in these 
sparsely settled regions they were especially 
necessary. Within the high walls which often 
surround them for protection were centralized 
the residence of the owner and all of his em- 
ployees and the necessary buildings to store 
the products of the soil. The hacendado's 
home was a large, roomy building, for, since 
there were no inns, the traveller must be enter- 
tained and hospitality was of the open-handed 
sort. The travel-worn wayfarer was welcomed 
and no questions asked. His wants were sup- 
plied and at his departure the benediction 
"■ Gro, and God be with you," followed him. 
Even yet at some of these great haciendas, 
where the old-time customs prevail, the bell 
is rung at mealtime and any one who hears it 
is welcomed at the table. 



Across the Plateaus 29 

The term hacienda has a double meaning, for 
it is applied both to the great estates and to 
the buildings. It is a patriarchal existence 
that is led by these landed proprietors. A 
thousand peons and more are frequently at- 
tached to the estate. Near the station of Villa 
Reyes is a great hacienda which once controlled 
twenty thousand peons. These must be pro- 
vided with homes, but a room fifteen feet 
square is considered sufficient for a. family, 
no matter how large. Little furniture is 
needed, for they live out of doors mostly, and 
mats, which can be removed during the day, 
take the place of cumbersome beds. The ad- 
ministrador , who may be an Indian also, and 
other heads, live better and are housed in 
larger quarters. A church is always a part 
of the estate and a priest must be kept to fur- 
nish spiritual solace, as well as a doctor to 
administer to those whose bodies are infirm. 
Schools are also maintained by most of the 
proprietors to-day. The peon must be pro- 
vided with his provisions each week and a little 
patch of ground for his own use. Around the 
I)uildings lie the cultivated fields, and from 
early morn until the shades of night have fallen, 
lines of burros are constantly passing in and 
out laden with wood, corn, vegetables, poul- 



30 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
try, boxes of freight, and all the other items of 
traffic which are a part of the life of this great 
household. 

After piercing another of the mountain 
ranges which intersect the country from east 
to west, and traversing miles of fertile fields 
and gardens bearing semi-tropical fruits and 
vegetables, the road enters a valley and the 
city of San Luis Potosi is reached. Every 
country has its Saint Louis, but only one has 
a Saint Louis of the Treasure, and that is San 
Luis Potosi, the capital of the state of that 
name. It lies in a spreading plain of great fer- 
tility — made so by irrigation — whose gar- 
dens extend to the encircling hills that are rich 
in the mineral treasures which give the city 
its name. The San Pedro mines near here 
alone produce an annual output of several mil- 
lions. These mines were revealed to Spaniards 
by an Indian who had become converted to 
Christianity. There is a mint here that coins 
several millions of dollars each year. 

San Luis Potosi is not a new city nor has 
its growth been of the mushroom variety. 
Founded in the middle of the sixteenth century, 
it preserves to-day in wood and stone the spirit 
of old Spain transplanted by the conquerors 
to the new world. Drawn hither by the reports 



Across the Plateaus 31 

of gold, the Spanish cavalier stalked through 
the streets of this town in complete mail before 
the May-flower landed on the shores of Massa- 
chusetts. The priests were chanting the sol- 
emn service of the church here long before the 
English landed at Jamestown. Dust had gath- 
ered on the municipal library, which now con- 
tains a hundred thousand volumes, centuries 
before the building of the first little red school 
house in the United States. Before New York 
had been thought of, the drama of life was 
being enacted here daily after Castilli^n mod- 
els. 

It is a cleanly city and the bright attractive 
look of its houses is refreshing. A city ordi- 
nance compels the citizens to keep up the ap- 
pearance of their houses, and the colours re- 
mind one of Seville. It is pleasant to walk 
along these streets and through the plazas with 
their trees and flowers and fountains. 

I will never forget my arrival in this city. 
We reached there about midnight, having been 
delayed by a wreck; and a number of mozos 
pounced upon the party of Americans who had 
been dropped by the belated train, each one 
eager to carry some of the baggage. We were 
marched through the Alameda, which, for a 
wonder, adjoins the station, on walks shaded. 



32 Mexico and Her People To-day 

by broad-leaved, tropical plants, down narrow 
streets and around several comers to the hotel. 
Arrived here it was only after several minutes 
of vigorous knocking that a sleepy-looking 
porter opened the door, and we entered the 
hotel and walked down the hall through a line 
of sleeping servants. The room finally as- 
signed to my friend an(J myself was thirty-four 
feet long, sixteen feet wide and about twenty- 
five feet high, and there were four great win- 
dows extending nearly from ceiling to floor 
and protected by heavy iron bars which made 
them look like the windows of a prison. It had 
doubtless been some church property at one 
time, but whether monastery or convent I did 
not learn. 

Not all this city is pretty however, for dis- 
tance often lends enchantment, and a closer 
scrutiny takes away much of this charm. I 
saw filth on the streets here that can only be 
duplicated in old Spain itself. There are nu- 
merous churches and several of them are quite 
pretentious and contain some fine paintings. 
On the fagade of one church there is a clock 
presented by the king of Spain in return for 
the largest piece of gold ever found in America. 
San Luis is a thrifty city as Mexican towns go 
and has numerous manufacturing establish- 



Across the Plateaus 33 

ments, including a large smelting works, the 
Compania Metallurgica, and is an important 
railroad centre. It is distant from the City 
of Mexico three hundred and sixty-two miles, 
and has a population of seventy thousand souls. 
This city claims quite a number of American 
families as residents and many of the store- 
keepers have been somewhat Americanized, for 
they actually seem to be on the lookout for busi- 
ness. The state capitol is a very interesting 
building. While looking through this palace 
I saw the *' line up " of petty offenders who 
were being sent out to sweep the streets. They 
were the worst looking lot of pulque-drinkeTS 
I ever saw and were clothed in rags. Each one 
was given a handful of twigs with which he was 
obliged to sweep the streets and gutters, and 
they were sent out in gangs, each under a police 
officer. The vices of these people are generally 
more evident than their virtues. They are in- 
veterate gamblers. Wherever one goes (not 
alone in San Luis Potosi) fighting cocks are 
encountered tied by the leg to a stake with a 
few feet of string. Or they may be carried 
in the arms of young would-be sports who brag 
of their birds to any one who will listen. One 
day I saw a man with a cock whose head was 
one bloody-looking mass. He had just cut off 



34 Mexico and Her People To-day 

the rooster's comb. When I stopped and 
looked, the Indian laughed as though it were 
a great joke and said he was *' much sick." 
This was done so that in a fight his opponent 
could not catch hold of the comb. Itinerant 
cock-fighters who travel across the country 
carrying their birds in hollow straw tubes are 
popular fellows. 

Leaving San Luis Potosi at noontime the 
traveller catches his last glimpse of this city 
where 

« Upon the whitened city walls 
The golden sunshine softly falls, 
On archways set with orange trees, 
On paven courts and balconies." 

The train soon enters a rich agricultural belt 
and the country becomes more populous. Giant 
cacti towering straight and tall to a height of 
fifteen or twenty feet are a common sight. 

Dolores Hidalgo where the patriot-priest 
first sounded the call to liberty and revolution 
is passed. Then comes Queretero, which occu- 
pies a prominent place in Mexican history and 
is the last city of any size on the way to the 
capital. Here the treaty of peace between Mex- 
ico and the United States was negotiated. In 
this city Maximilian played the last act in the 



Across the Plateaus 35 

tragedy of the empire. He was captured wMle 
attempting to escape on June 19th, 1867, and 
was shot on the Cerro de las Campaiias, a little 
hill just outside the city. With him were shot 
Generals Miramon and Mejia. Maximilian died 
with the cry of " Viva Mexico " on his lips. 
There is a magnificent aqueduct here which, 
because of the high arches, looks like the old 
ruined aqueduct seen on approaching Rome. 
The tallest arch is nearly one hundred feet. 
The entire length of the aqueduct is about five 
miles and it is still in use. There are a num- 
ber of factories for cotton goods. Among them 
is the great Hercules Mill which employs more 
than two thousand hands. The grounds are 
laid out in elaborate and beautiful style. 

After climbing the mountain range again 
until an altitude of nearly ten thousand feet 
has been reached, the descent begins and the 
beauty of the Valley of Mexico unfolds. Fleet- 
ing glimpses of the scene may be caught 
through little gaps in the mountains until 
finally the train enters a pass and the traveller 
has his first view of the City of Mexico. Be- 
yond the glittering towers and domes of the 
modern city on the site of the ancient Aztec 
capital lies the bright expanse of the lakes, and 
still further in the distance is seen the encir- 



36 Mexico and Her People To-day 

cling girdle of mountains like a protecting wall 
around this enchanted scene. 

There are many other cities situated on these 
vast plateaus, for the tierra fria has always 
maintained the bulk of the population in spite 
of the extraordinary richness of the lowlands. 
They are growing in size as manufacturing es- 
tablishments become more numerous. A num- 
ber of them like Chihuahua, Aguas Calientes, 
Zacatecas, Gruauajuato, Durango, and Leon are 
interesting cities of from thirty to forty thou- 
sand inhabitants and all of them are old. Chi- 
huahua (pronounced Che-wa-wa) is the capital 
of the state of that name which is the largest 
state in the republic and is twice as large as 
the state of Ohio. It has a population of less 
than four hundred thousand. This will serve 
to give a little idea of the vastness of these 
great tablelands and the sparseness of popu- 
lation. It is chiefly devoted to great ranches 
where hundreds of thousands of cattle are 
grazed. 

It may be interesting to note that cattle 
ranching originated in this state. All the terms 
used on the range and roundup are of Spanish 
origin and are the same that have been em- 
ployed for centuries. One man here is the 
owner of a cattle ranch covering seventeen mil- 



Across the Plateaus 37 



lion acres. The traveller might journey for 
days and cross ranges of mountains and not 
pass beyond his princely domain. There are a 
number of cattle ranches of from one to two 
million acres and a few Americans are now 
entering the field here since the public domain 
in the United States has dwindled so much. 

Two cities, Guadalajara and Puebla, have 
long disputed for the honour of second city in 
the republic. Puebla is situated southeast of 
the capital and is a city of tiles, for tiles are 
used everywhere from the domes of churches 
to floors for the devout to kneel upon. It is the 
capital of the richest state in the republic and 
has probably seen more of the vicissitudes of 
war than any other city. It has been captured 
and occupied successively by Spaniards, Amer- 
icans and French and by revolutionists times 
without number. This city was the scene of 
General Zaragossa's victory on May 5th, 1862, 
when he repulsed the French forces just out- 
side the city's gates. This victory is celebrated 
each year as the " cinco de Mayo " (Fifth of 
May) and is the great anti-foreign day. For- 
merly foreigners did not show themselves on 
the street on this day, but that antagonistic 
sentiment has disappeared. In 1906 because 
of labour disturbances for whick American 



38 Mexico and Her People To-day 

agitators were blamed trouble was feared on 
this day, but it passed off without an unpleas- 
ant incident. This city was founded as early 
as 1532. Its history is romantic and full of 
legends recounting the many visits of the 
angels. Angels appeared one night and staked 
out the city. Again, while the cathedral was 
being built, the angels came after nightfall 
when the city was wrapped in slumber and 
built a great part of the tower. At another 
time the angels were marshalled in mighty 
hosts just over the city. The people can even 
point out to you the very places where the 
angelic visitors roosted. The ecclesiastical 
records vouch for these appearances of the 
heavenly visitors and the people devoutly be- 
lieve In them. 

Puebla has wide streets — for Mexico — and 
many beautiful plazas with flowers and foun- 
tains. It is also noted for its bull-fights and 
has two bull-rings. These are in use nearly 
every Sunday and frequently for the benefit 
of or in honour of some church feast or de- 
parted saint. The public buildings are very 
creditable and the city contains good schools 
and hospitals. A goodly number of foreigners 
live here, especially Germans. I have noticed 
that the Germans affiliate with the Mexicans 



Across the Plateaus 39 

much better than Americans generally do. One 
reason is that they come here to establish their 
permanent residence, while Americans, like 
the Chinese, desire to make their fortunes and 
then return to the land of their birth to spend 
their later days. 

Puebla has become quite a manufacturing 
city and especially of cotton goods, paper, flour 
and soaps. Onyx and marble are quarried near 
here, and a large number of workmen are em- 
ployed in the quarries and in the establish- 
ments preparing these materials for the mar- 
ket. Several railroads now reach this city, and 
its importance as an industrial centre is in- 
creasing each year. 

All kinds of grains that are produced in the 
temperate zones will grow on the tablelands 
of Mexico wherever there is sufficient rain or 
water to be obtained by irrigation. A con- 
stantly increasing amount of acreage is being 
made available through the extension of the 
irrigation system, but its possibilities are only 
beginning to be realized. Corn, which is such 
a great article of food with the Mexicans, is 
by far the most valuable agricultural product 
and several hundred million bushels are pro- 
duced each year. Wheat was first introduced 
in Mexico by a monk who planted a few grains 



40 Mexico and Her People To-day 

that he had brought with him. This grain is 
now raised quite extensively in some districts 
but frequently there is not enough for even 
local consumption. Cotton is also produced 
in a number of the states. 

Mexico is especially rich in fibre-producing 
plants and no country in the world has so many 
different varieties. All of these belong to the 
great cactus, or agave, family. The value of 
the cactus has never been fully appreciated but 
new uses are being found for it constantly, and 
new kinds with valuable qualities are being dis- 
covered in Mexico almost yearly. Perhaps the 
most valuable plant of this family that is being 
cultivated in Mexico to-day is that species of 
the agave that produces the valuable henequen 
fibre of commerce. This plant very much re- 
sembles the maguey and grows on the thin, 
rocky, limestone soil of Yucatan. From this 
fibre is made most of the binder twine and much 
of the rope used in the United States. It has 
the threefold qualities of strength, pliability 
and colour. In the past twenty years the cul- 
tivation of henequen has grown to enormous 
proportions, and some of the planters have be- 
come millionaires almost rivalling the famous 
bonanza kings of olden times. The amount of 
henequen, or sisal, fibre exported to the United 




THE MAGUEY 



Across the Plateaus 41 

States from 1880 to 1905 was nine million, two 
hundred and nineteen thousand, two hundred 
and fifteen bales at an estimated value of $300,- 
988,072.66. In 1902 the exports reached a max- 
imum, and amounted to $34,185,275. All of this 
fibre is exported through the port of Progreso. 

Several species of the cactus family are being 
experimented with, and it is claimed that they 
will produce an excellent quality of paper pulp. 
This may help to solve the problem that now 
bothers paper manufacturers as the forests of 
spruce disappear before the woodsman's ax. 
The graceful maguey, the agave americana, is 
cultivated almost everywhere on the plateau 
lands. It also produces a valuable fibre, but 
this plant is not cultivated primarily for that 
purpose. The ancient races used the thorns 
for pins and needles; the leaves furnished a 
kind of parchment for their writings and thatch 
for their roofs; and the juice when fermented 
made a — to them — most delicious drink. On 
the plains of Apam just east of the Valley of 
Mexico and north of Puebla the cultivation of 
the maguey has reached the highest develop- 
ment. 

The good housewife in the United States 
who carefully nourishes the century plant, hop- 
ing that at least her descendants will have the 



42 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
pleasure of seeing it blossom at the end of a 
hundred years, would be surprised to see the 
immense plantations consisting of thousands of 
this same plant growing here. The plant, com- 
monly called the maguey, is a native of Mexico 
and grows to great size. It flourishes best in 
rocky and sandy soil and is quite imposing in 
appearance. Its dark green, spiked leaves 
which lift themselves up and spread out in 
graceful curves, sometimes reach a length of 
fifteen feet, and are a foot in breadth and sev- 
eral inches thick. It requires from six to ten 
years for the maguey to mature on its native 
heath. When that period arrives a slender 
stalk springs up from the centre of these great 
leaves, twenty to thirty feet high, upon which 
a great mass of small flowers is clustered. This 
supreme effort exhausts the plant and, its duty 
to nature having been performed, it withers 
and dies. 

This is not the purpose for which the maguey 
is raised on the big plantations where the rows 
of graceful century plants stretch out as far as 
the eye can reach in unwavering regularity. 
On these plantations the maguey is not per- 
mitted to flower. The Indians know, by infal- 
lible signs, almost the very hour at which it 
is ready to send up the central stalk, and it is 



Across the Plateaus 43 

then marked by an overseer with a cross. The 
stalk is now full of the sap which is the object 
of its culture. Other Indians follow up the 
overseer and, making an incision at the base 
of the plant, extract the central portion, leav- 
ing only the rind which forms a natural basin. 
Into this the sap, which is called agua miel, or 
honey-water, and which is almost as clear as 
water and as sweet as honey, collects. So 
quickly does this fluid gather that it is found 
necessary to remove it two or three times per 
day. The method of gathering this sap is ex- 
tremely primitive. The Indian is provided 
with a long gourd at the lower end of which 
is a horn. He places the small end, which is 
open, in the liquid and, applying his lips to an 
opening in the large end, sucks the sap up into 
the gourd. The sap is then emptied into a re- 
ceptacle swung across his back which is made 
of a whole goat-skin or pig-skin with the hair 
on the inside. The maguey plant will yield six 
or more quarts of this " honey- water " in a 
day and the supply will continue from one to 
three months. It is then exhausted and withers 
and decays. However, a new shoot will spring 
up from the old roots without replanting. 

This ini^ocent looking and savoury sap is 
then taken to a building prepared for the pur- 



44 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
pose, and there poured into vats made of cow- 
hides stretched on a frame. In each vat a little 
sour liquor called " mother of pulque " has 
been poured. This causes quick fermentation 
and in a few hours the pulque of the Mexican is 
ready for the market. It is at its best after 
about twenty-four hours fermentation. It then 
has somewhat the appearance and taste of stale 
buttermilk and a rancid smell. After more 
fermentation it has the odour of putrid meat. 
The skins in which it is carried increase this 
disagreeable odour. The first taste of pulque 
to a stranger is repellant. However, it is said 
that, contrary to the general rule, familiarity 
breeds a liking. Great virtues are claimed for 
it in certain ailments and it is said to be whole- 
some. However this is not the reason why the 
peons drink pulque in such great quantities. 
Several special trainloads go in each day to the 
City of Mexico over one road, besides large 
amounts over other routes and it is a great 
revenue producer for the railroads. The daily 
expenditure for pulque in the City of Mexico 
alone is said to exceed twenty thousand dollars. 
Physicians say that the brain is softened, diges- 
tion ruined and nerves paralyzed by a too gen- 
erous use of this liquor. Many employers of 
labour will not employ labourers from the 



Across the Plateaus 45 



pulque districts if they can possibly get them 
from other sources. Tequila and Mescal are 
two forms of ardent spirits distilled from a 
juice yielded by the leaves and root of the 
maguey. .They are forms of brandy that it is 
best for the traveller to leave alone. 



CHAPTER III 

THE CAPITAL 

The City of Mexico represents progressive 
Mexico. In it is concentrated the wealth, cul- 
ture and refinement of the republic. It is the 
political, the educational, the social and the 
commercial centre of the whole country. It is 
to Mexico what Paris is to France. In fact 
it would be Mexico as Paris would be France. 
The same glare and glitter of a pleasure-loving 
metropolis are found here, and within the same 
boundaries may be seen the deepest poverty 
and most abject degradation. 

" Wait until you get to the City of Mexico," 
said an educated Mexican to me as we were 
crossing the sparsely-settled table-lands of 
northern Mexico, where the only inhabitants 
are Indians. The Mexicans are proud of their 
city and are pleased to have it likened to the 
gay French capital, for their ideals and tastes 
are fashioned after the Latin standard rather 
than the American. The French, they say, 

46 






?^LToc^ yj3\ i^;f«F» 

Tei 




J t //Q^'"^'^'aitMc4flfuHTEPrL /^ 

L. D E 







MAP OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO 



The Capital 47 

have the culture and can embrace a la Mexi- 
cana, which is done by throwing an arm around 
a friend whom they meet and patting him 
heartily on the back. They prefer the easy- 
going, wait-a-while style of existence to the 
hurried, strenuous life of an American city. 
No people love leisure and the pursuit of pleas- 
ure more than our neighbours in the Mexican 
metropolis. They work during the morning 
hours, take a noon siesta, close up early in the 
afternoon and are ready for pleasure in the 
evening until a late hour. 

In appearance the capital resembles Madrid 
more than any other city I have ever seen. 
The architecture is the Moorish-Spanish style, 
into which some Aztec modifications have been 
wrought by the new-world builders. The light, 
airy appearance of an American city is absent 
for there are no frame structures anywhere. 
The square, flat-roofed buildings, with walls 
thick enough to withstand any earthquake 
shock, are two or three stories in height and 
built round a patio, or courtyard, the centre 
of which is open to the sky. The old architects 
were not hampered by such paltry considera- 
tions as the price of lots, and so they built 
veritable palaces with wide corridors and rooms 
lofty and huge. Through many of these rooms 



48 Mexico and Her People To-day 

you might easily drive a carriage. There are 
parlours as large as public halls, and through- 
out all one notes the grandiose ideas of the 
race. The houses, , of stone or brick covered 
with stucco, are built clear up to the sidewalk 
so that there is no tinge of green in front. The 
Mexican is not particular about the exterior 
of his home, but expends his thought and money 
on the open court within. The plainness of the 
outside is relieved only by the large gate, or 
door, which is also the carriage drive-way, and 
the neat little, iron-grated balconies on which 
the windows open from the upper stories. 

These balconies afford a convenient place for 
the women of the household to see what is pass- 
ing on the street, and also for the senorita, or 
young lady, to watch the restless pacing to and 
fro of the love-stricken youth who is '* playing 
bear " in front of the house. The great door- 
way, which is carefully barred and bolted at 
night, and strictly guarded by the porter during 
the day, is the only entrance to the patio, which, 
in the better class of homes, is adorned with 
pretty gardens, statuary and fountains. Many 
of them contain an open plunge bath. Through 
the wide windows one catches glimpses of fas- 
cinating interiors, and through the broad door- 
ways the passer-by on the street gets many a 



The Capital 49 

pretty view of the courtyards, and of these 
miniature gardens. One or two rows of living- 
apartments extend around and above the court, 
with broad corridors in front handsomely 
paved with tile, protected by balustrades and 
adorned with flowers and vines. Above, the 
red tiles of the roof add a little additional col- 
our to the scene. There are no cellars nor 
chimneys. The latter were never introduced 
because of the mildness of the climate. In the 
courts protected from the winds, the people 
keep on the sunny side when it is cool and hide 
from the same orb when it is hot. Charcoal 
fires are used for cooking and heat when it be- 
comes necessary. Cellars are made impossible 
because of the marshy nature of the soil. 

It will be recalled that Tenochtitlan, the Az- 
tec capital, has been called the New World 
Venice, whose streets were once canals. It 
must have been a gay and picturesque scene 
when the fair surface of its waters was re- 
splendent with shining cities and flowering 
islets. The waters have since receded until 
Lake Texcoco, at its nearest point, is three 
miles distant. Mexico is now a more prosaic 
city of streets and cross-streets which extend 
from north to south and from east to west. 
Some of the principal thoroughfares are broad, 



50 Mexico and Her People To-day 

paved with asphalt and well kept; but many 
are quite narrow, and especially is this true 
of the streets called lanes, though devoted to 
business. There is no exclusive residence sec- 
tion, except in the new additions, and many of 
the homes of the old families are found sand- 
wiched in between stores. It is a difficult mat- 
ter to become familiar with the names of the 
streets, for they are more than nine hundred 
in number, and a street generally has a differ- 
ent name for each block. If several blocks have 
the same name, as, for instance, Calle de San 
Francisco, one of the finest streets, and on or 
near which are some of the largest hotels, finest 
stores and richest private dwellings, then it 
is First San Francisco, Second San Francisco, 
etc. 

A few years ago the streets were re-named. 
All the streets extending east and West were 
called avenidas, and the north and south streets 
calles, each continuous thoroughfare being 
given but one name. The people, however, in 
this land of legend and tradition, clung so tena- 
ciously to the former designations that they 
have practically been restored. Some of the 
old names of streets commemorated historical 
events, as, for instance, the Street of the Cinco 
de Mayo, which is in remembrance of the vie- 



The Capital 51 

tory of the Mexicans over the French at Puebla 
in 1862. Others are named in honour of men 
noted in the history of Mexico. Many rehg- 
ious terms appear, such as the street of Jesus, 
Sanctified Virgin, Holy Ghost, Sepulchres of 
the Holy Sabbath, and the like. Others owe 
their names to some incident or legend, which 
is both interesting and mysterious. Of the 
latter class may be mentioned the Street of the 
Sad Indian, Lane of Pass if You Can, Street 
of the Lost Child, Street of the Wood Owls, 
Lane of the Rat, Bridge of the Raven and 
Street of the Walking Priest. The Street of 
the Coffin Makers is now known as the Street 
of Death. It is a thoroughfare of one block, 
and is one of the few streets that still preserves 
its ancient caste, for it is devoted exclusively 
to the makers of coffins. All of the coffins are 
made by hand. It is a gloomy street and there 
are cleaner spots on the face of the earth. 

Mexico is a very cosmopolitan city. Its three 
hundred and seventy-five thousand inhabitants 
include representatives from nearly every na- 
tion of the earth. The Indians are vastly in 
the majority, and they are the pure and orig- 
inal Mexicans. The Creoles, who are descend- 
ants of Europeans, generally Spanish, call 
themselves the Mexicans and rank second in 



52 Mexico and Her People To-day 

number. They form the real aristocratic body 
from whom come the representative Mexicans. 
They are not all dark, but a blonde is a rare 
specimen. Most of them have an olive-brown 
colour, thus showing the mixture of Indian 
blood, for in early days it was not considered 
a mesalliance for even a Spanish officer of high 
rank to marry an Aztec maiden of the better 
class. 

The old families cling tenaciously to the 
great estates, or haciendas, many of which have 
remained intact for centuries. Quite a number 
can even trace their estates back to the original 
grants from the king of Spain. Many of these 
hacendados, or landed proprietors, enjoy 
princely incomes from their lands, and nearly 
all of them own residences in the capital. They 
maintain elaborate establishments and keep 
four times as many servants as would be found 
in an American house. 

The average Mexican does not care for busi- 
ness. Neither is he an inventor or originator, 
for he is content to live as his ancestors have 
lived. Nearly all lines of commerce and indus- 
try are in the hands of foreigners. The Ger- 
mans monopolize the hardware trade; the 
French conduct nearly all the dry goods stores ; 
the Spaniards are the country's grocers; and 



The Capital 53 

the Americans aud English control the rail- 
road, electric and mining industries. All these 
interests centre in the City of Mexico. Rail- 
roads are not very numerous until you ap- 
proach the Valley of Mexico where they con- 
verge from all directions. The hum of indus- 
try is apparent here as nowhere else in the 
whole republic. The Mexicans boast of their 
capital, but they often forget the debt they owe 
to foreigners, for all the modern improvements 
have been installed by alien races and outside 
capital. It is another foreign invasion but with 
a pacific mission. The American colony alone 
in that city numbers more than six thousand 
persons, and the number is constantly increas- 
ing. Hatred of the American has almost dis- 
appeared, and the incomers are cordially wel- 
comed. There are two flourishing clubs around 
which the social life of the expatriated Ameri- 
cans centre. 

The society of the capital, and indeed of the 
whole country, is very diverse. What might be 
said of one class would not apply to another. 
The differences of dress and customs alone 
make known the heterogeneousness of the popu- 
lation. They all use the same language and all 
classes are brought together on a common level 
in their religion. No other nation has ever 



54 Mexico and Her People To-day 

made such complete conquests as Spain. She 
not only subjugated the lands but forced her 
language, as well as religion, upon the con- 
quered races. The English have succeeded in 
extending their sway over a large part of the 
world, but in no instance have they been able to 
accomplish these two results with the native 
population. The priests of Spain went hand 
in hand with the conquistadores, and, within a 
few generations after the conquest of Mexico 
by Cortez, the Spanish language was univer- 
sally used and the Indians were at least nom- 
inal Catholics. 

The climate of the City of Mexico is delight- 
ful. It is neither hot nor cold. It is too far 
south to be cold and the altitude, seven thou- 
sand, four hundred and thirty-four feet above 
the level of the sea, is too great to be hot. The 
temperature usually ranges from sixty-five to 
eighty-five, but sometimes goes as high as 
ninety, and as low as thirty-five, and frosts 
occasionally are experienced. The mornings 
and evenings are cool and at midday it is al- 
ways hot. There is a great difference in the 
temperature between the sunny and shady side 
of the street. Only dogs and Americans take 
the sunny side, the Mexicans say. The rainy 
and dry seasons occur with great regularity, the 



The Capital 55 

former lasting from May to October. It is the 
best season in the year although most visitors 
go there in winter. The rains always occur in 
the afternoon and usually cease before dark. 
At this time, too, all nature takes on a beautiful 
shade of green which replaces the rather dull 
landscape of the dry season. There is also a 
brisk, electric condition of the atmosphere that 
is decidedly exhilarating and a good tonic. 

This mildness of climate has greatly influ- 
enced the life of the capital. The streets, ex- 
cept during the noon siesta, are full of people 
at all times. To judge from the crowds, one 
might think the capital a city of a million peo- 
ple. In the morning the women go to mass 
garbed in black, generally wearing a black 
shawl over the head. Occasionally a black lace 
mantilla is seen half-concealing, half-exposing 
the olive-brown face, and bright, sparkling eyes 
of a senorita. Shoppers are out and business 
is active. The women of the wealthier classes 
sit in their carriages and have the goods 
brought out ifo them, or go to a private room 
where articles are exhibited by clerks. They 
think that it is unbecoming to stand at the 
counters, although the American plan of shop- 
ping is becoming quite popular in recent years. 

About the middle of the afternoon the crowds 



56 Mexico and Her People To-day 

again appear, and a little later the streets 
begin to fill with carriages. Nowhere, not even 
in Paris, have I observed so many carriages as 
can be seen here on any pleasant afternoon. 
They form one continuous, slow-moving line of 
many miles. The procession moves out San 
Francisco Street through the Alameda, along 
the Paseo de la Eeforma, and then into the 
beautiful park surrounding the Castle of Cha- 
pultepec which is set with great cypresses, said 
to antedate the conquest. The cavalcade winds 
around through the various drives at the base 
of the rock, along the shores of the lake, past 
the castle and back to the city. The carriages 
go out on one side and return on the other, 
leaving the central portion for riders; It is a 
sight that never wearies for one to sit on a 
bench and watch the motley throng of people 
driving, riding on horseback and promenading. 
An oriental exclusiveness is observed by ladies 
of the upper class who always ride in closed car- 
riages. All kinds of vehicles are to be seen, 
from fine equipages with liveried drivers and 
footmen, to the poorest cab in the city with its 
disreputable driver and broken-down horses, 
fit only for the bull-ring. 

There are many horsemen and the Mexicans 
are always excellent riders. Their horses are 



The Capital 57 

Lilliputian in size but fast and enduring. The 
saddle, bridle and trappings are frequently 
gorgeous with their silver ornaments and im- 
mense stirrups fancifully worked and shaped. 
The rider is often a picture wonderful to behold 
from the heavy silver spurs which he wears, 
to the sombrero of brown or yellow felt with 
a brim ten to fifteen inches wide and a crown 
equally as high, the whole covered with heavy 
gilt cord formed into a sort of rope. Then 
there is the dude or fop, who is well named in 
Mexico. He is called a " lajartija " which 
means a '' little lizard." He used to dress in 
such close-fitting and stiff costumes that he had 
not much more freedom of motion than the 
stiff little lizard. Now he is the dandy who is 
generally seen standing on a public corner, 
wearing a" French cutaway suit, American 
patent leather shoes and an English stovepipe 
hat, with his fingers closed over the indispensa- 
ble cigarette. 

In the evening the populace attend the thea- 
tre or some social function. Sunday is the day 
of all others for recreation, and, with the aver- 
age inhabitant of Mexico, is one continuous and 
eternal round of pleasure. After morning 
service the entire day is devoted to pleasure. 
Band concerts are always given by the military 



58 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
bands on the Plaza in the morning, in the Ala- 
meda early in the afternoon, and at Chapulte- 
pec abont five o'clock. Then there is the bull- 
fight which occurs only on Sundays and holi- 
days. 

The average crowd in the City of Mexico is 
a good natured and peaceable one. The city 
Indian and his country cousin, the peon from 
the plantation, join the crowd on a feast day 
with their numerous progeny. They are not 
the pleasantest neighbours in the world for 
both have the odour of garlic and pulque and 
their baths are of the annual variety. That 
the little brown man is a peon is no fault of 
his. His uncleanliness is, in a measure, the 
result of centuries of neglect, and more par- 
ticularly of a scarcity of water at his home. 
It is possible that if he had the water his con- 
dition would be just the same. Though he is 
poor and down-trodden, there i^ nothing of the 
anarchist about him. He is absolutely devoid 
of envy or malice; and withal his spirits are 
gay and he is as generous to his family or 
friends as his finances permit. The artificial 
refinements of modern civilization have not yet 
spoiled him, and there is a pleasant, even if 
malodorous, naturalness about him. 

In no city do ancient and modern customs 



The Capital 59 

come into such intimate contrast as in the City 
of Mexico. Nowhere is a greater mixture of 
races to be seen than here. There are many 
tribes of Indians speaking scores of dialects, 
and there are mestizos of various degrees of 
mixture with African, American and European 
blood. Types of four centuries can be seen in 
any group on one of the plazas. The Plaza 
Mayor is a great, imposing, central square of 
fourteen acres in the centre of the city, and 
on its walks all the types can be seen at their 
best. Men and women come into the city 
through the streets lighted by electricity, bear- 
ing immense loads on their heads and backs 
rather than use a wagon. Peddlers carry 
around jars of water for sale just as in the 
olden times. Indians, who are almost pure 
Aztecs, pass along, taking the middle of the 
street in Indian file. Well dressed men in black 
broadcloth suits and wearing silk hats go by. 
The women of the middle class add colour to 
the scene with the red and blue rehosas, some- 
times covering the head, or tied across the chest 
and holding an infant at the back. Nearly all 
the passers-by" show in their colour that they 
can claim kinship with the hosts of Montezuma. 
The general effect is kaleidoscopic but enter- 
taining. The great cathedral on the north side 



60 Mexico and Her People To-day 

of the Plaza is the one place where all are 
brought together and class distinction oblit- 
erated. Visit the cathedral any day and you 
may see an Indian with his pack on his back 
side by side with a young woman who may 
inherit a dozen titles. There are no select, 
high-priced, aristocratic pews for rent, but all 
meet by a common genuflection before the sa- 
cred altars. The poor Indian may not under- 
stand all the pomp and ceremony, the music 
of the vested choirs, or the solemn chanting by 
the priests, but it fills a deep want in his nature 
and he is satisfied. 

At one side of the Plaza Mayor once stood 
the great Aztec Teocalli, the Temple of Sac- 
rifice. This was a high imposing altar reached 
by a flight of more than a hundred steps. From 
the top was a magnificent view of the entire 
valley, and it was from this point that the envi- 
ous eyes of Cortez looked out upon this beau- 
tiful scene. The altar was dedicated to the 
Aztec war god Huitzilopochtli, and here, to ap- 
pease the wrath of this terrible god, human sac- 
rifices were offered. The breast was cut open 
and the heart, still palpitating, plucked out and 
placed upon the altar. The bodies were cast 
down to the ground, whence they were taken 
and prepared for the banquet table. 



The Capital 61 

A part of the space once covered by this 
gruesome but majestic pile, is now occupied 
by the Monte de Piedad, or " mountain of 
mercy," one of the most unique charities in 
the world. It is nothing more or less than a 
gigantic pawn-shop, but it is one of the most 
beneficient institutions in the country. The 
Count of Eegla, a noted personage in Mexico, 
founded this institution by a gift of three hun- 
dred thousand dollars. He did this in order 
that the poor and needy, and the impoverished 
members of families once genteel, might secure 
small sums upon personal property at low rates 
of interest, instead of becoming involved in the 
meshes of the blood-sucking vampires who prey 
upon this class of unfortunates. About three- 
fourths of the actual value of the property 
pledged as fixed by appraisers, will be loaned. 
If the interest is not paid, the property is kept 
for seven months, when it is offered for sale 
at a fixed price. If not disposed of in another 
five months it is sold at auction. 

The truly remarkable feature of this estab- 
lishment is, that if a greater sum is realized 
than the amount of the loan and interest, the 
excess is placed to the credit of the owner, or 
his heirs, and will be kept for one hundred 
years, after which time it reverts to the insti- 



62 Mexico and Her People To-day 

tution. Many old heirlooms of former gran- 
dees, Aztec curios, diamonds, gold ornaments 
and even family gods have passed through this 
organization of charity. For more than a cen- 
tury it has existed, having survived all the civil 
wars, revolutions and changes of government. 
The original capital has been more than 
doubled by the forfeitures, and many branches 
of this parent institution are operated in the 
capital and in several of the large cities of the 
republic. It is an example that might be sug- 
gested to some of our multi-millionaires who 
do not know what to do with their vast accu- 
mulations of wealth. 

Even the funerals are conducted in a strange 
way. With the exception of funerals among 
the wealthy, the street cars are universally 
used. The enterprising owner of the street car 
system some years ago acting on the trust idea, 
bought up all the hearses and introduced fu- 
neral cars. After a short time the people 
became accustomed to the new plan, which 
seemed to give satisfaction. Now, trolley 
funeral cars of the first, second and third class 
are furnished at a price varying from five dol- 
lars for the cheapest class, to a hundred dollars 
or more for a first-class car. Some of the poor 
rent coffins which are returned after the burial. 



The Capital 63 

The very poor may be seen carrying their dead 
on their shoulders to the Campo Somto, or holy 
ground. Graves are usually sold only for a 
certain number of years, after which, unless 
the relatives pay the prescribed fee, the bones 
are taken up and the ground made ready for a 
new occupant. The dead are soon forgotten. 
A pile of bones in a corner of the cemetery 
represents all that is mortal of the generations 
who passed away not many years ago. There 
is an entire lack of reverence for the mortal 
remains of the departed, such as one is accus- 
tomed to find in our own country. One is re- 
minded of the couplet 

« Rattle his bones over the stones, 
He's only a pauper, whom nobody owns." 

The City of Mexico is not the healthiest city 
in the world. On the contrary the death rate 
is unusually high. The average duration of 
life is said to be only twenty-six years. This 
is due in a great measure to infant mortality. 
Typhoid and malarial fevers are prevalent be- 
cause of the accumulated drainage of centuries, 
which lies just a few feet beneath the surface. 
Pneumonia is common and regarded as very 
dangerous because of the rarefied air, and pa- 
tients suffering from this disease are immedi- 



64 Mexico and Her People To-day 

ately transported to lower altitudes for treat- 
ment. The entire lack of hygiene and sanitary 
conditions among the peon classes is in a great 
measure responsible for the unusual percent- 
age of mortality. Few other cities in the world 
have such a high rate of deaths compared with 
the population. 

Strange it is that the capital was ever built 
on this low, marshy soil when higher land was 
available and near at hand. It was one of the 
great blunders of Cortez, for Mexico might 
have been made a healthy city. No exigency 
of commerce dictated its selection, for it is far 
from the sea coast on either side and was dif- 
ficult of access before the day of railroads. 
The new city was built on the site of the old, 
and the temples of the Christian religion were 
raised on the sites of the old pagan altars wher- 
ever possible. A plan of moving the city to 
higher ground was strongly agitated at one 
time but the vested interests succeeded in kill- 
ing this project. It is hoped and believed that 
when the plans for sewerage are completed, the 
health conditions will be placed on a par with 
that of most cities. The authorities are making 
an honest and earnest effort to carry out these 
commendable projects. 



The Capital 65 

" Know ye not pulque, 
Liquor divine, 
The Angels in heaven 
Prefer it to wine." 

Thus sings the lower class Mexican to whom 
this liquor has become a curse. To it is due 
much of his poverty and many of his crimes. 
For it he will neglect his family and steal from 
his employer. It does not contain a large per- 
centage of alcohol, but, taken in large quan- 
tities, as is customary among these people, it 
puts them in a dopy condition which they sleep 
off. One railroad brings in a train-load each 
day, and, besides, large quantities are brought 
in by other lines. There are sixteen hundred 
pulque saloons in the capital, but they are all 
closed at six o'clock by a law which is strictly 
enforced. The pulque-shop betrays itself by 
its odour, as well as by the crowds of poorly 
dressed and even filthy men and women who 
surround its doors and press around the coun- 
ter. It is a gaily decorated affair and is often- 
times adorned in flaring colours inside and out, 
with reds, blues, greens and yellows predomi- 
nating, and frequently with a huge, rude paint- 
ing on the outside walls. In some of the shops 
you will find a curious string loiotted in a pecul- 
iar manner or strung with shells. This is a sur- 



66 Mexico and Her People To-day 

vival of the Aztec method of counting by means 
of beads, or shells, strung together. 

As one writer says, ''the pulque shop, not- 
withstanding its evil influence upon the life of 
the people, presents a very picturesque appear- 
ance to the tourist who has never seen anything 
like it before. The dress of the people, the 
curious, vivid colours of the walls of the build- 
ing, the semi-barbaric appearance of the dec- 
orations within, the curious semi-symbolic pic- 
tures upon the walls, the unaccustomed group- 
ings of the people, all combine to attract the 
attention of the stranger in Mexico. ' ' 

In the naming of the pulque-dens the imag- 
ination is allowed full play. I quote from a 
Mexican periodical the names of some of these 
resorts: A place in the suburbs of Mexico is 
termed the " Delight of Bacchus." One is 
called " The Seventh Heaven," another " The 
Food of the Gods," while still another bears 
the euphonious title of '' The Land of the Lo- 
tus." " A Night of Delight " is another place 
near '' The Heart ''s Desire." Thl6 above names 
are commonplace by the side of the following: 
" The Hang-out of John the Baptist," " The 
Retreat of the Holy Ghost," " The Delight of 
the Apostle," " The Retreat of the Holy Vir- 
gin," " The Mecca of Delight," and " The 



The Capital 67 

Fountain of the Angels." Nothing disrespect- 
ful is intended by these appellations but they 
sound very sacrilegious to us. 

There is, however, a brighter side to the In- 
dian life in the City of Mexico. In one corner 
of the Zocalo, and covering a part of the site 
formerly occupied by the great sacificial altar, 
is the flower-market. This flower-market is 
always attractive and a never-ending source 
of interest to the tourist. Immense bouquets 
of the choicest flowers are sold so cheap that 
the price seems almost absurd. By judicious 
bargaining a few cents will purchase a large 
and varied supply of roses, violets and helio- 
trope, which only dollars could buy from a 
New York florist. No hot-houses are needed 
here at any season, for in this climate flowers 
bloom all the year round, and one crop succeeds 
another in a never-ending succession. The 
Mexican Indian is a lover of flowers. It is one 
of the redeeming traits of his character. He 
is not always particular as to his personal ap- 
pearance; he may be unkempt and untidy to 
look upon ; but he loves flowers, is prodigal in 
his use of them and shows good taste in their 
arrangement. This taste is innate, is no doubt 
inherited from his Aztec ancestors, and has 
survived the oppressions and exactions of the 



68 Mexico and Her People To-day 

succeeding centuries. This love for flowers 
finds expression even in his worship, and it is 
no uncommon thing to find flowers before the 
image of the Virgin, and such an offering is one 
of the expressions of his good will. When we 
consider that our forefathers were taught to 
worship God with the first fruits of their hus- 
bandry, it is not surprising that this primitive 
and ignorant race should still find use in their 
worship for these beautiful products of a prod- 
igal nature. 

The gardens and parks of the City of Mex- 
ico attain a luxuriant growth that cannot be 
equalled in our northern cities. These breath- 
ing-places where one can sit amid scenes of 
tropical verdure, and admire the bright tints 
of the flowers while shielded from the hot sun 
by the broad-leafed foliage of the plants, are 
truly delightful spots for an American to visit. 
They contrast so strongly with the cheerless 
appearance of the streets. In the centre of the 
large Plaza Mayor lies the Zocalo, a little green 
oasis in the great paved waste. It is in the 
very heart of the city's throbbing life, and 
everything either has its beginning or ending 
on this imposing square. 

On one side of the Plaza lies the Palacio Na- 
donal which has stood there for more than 



The Capital 69 

two centuries. It covers the site of the ancient 
palace of Montezuma, and has an imposing 
facade of nearly seven hundred feet. Over the 
main entrance hangs the Liberty Bell of Mex- 
ico which was rung by Hidalgo on the first call 
to independence at Dolores, where it had so 
often summoned the people to mass. The im- 
mense windows which look out upon the Plaza 
open into the various rooms where the official 
business of the executive department of the 
republic is transacted. Other parts of this 
immense structure, for it is almost a square 
building enclosing an open court, are occupied 
by the legislative chambers and barrack rooms 
for several regiments of soldiers. 

A few blocks away from the Plaza lies the 
Alameda, which is the park of the better 
classes. Every city has an alameda, as the vis- 
itor soon learns, but this is the alameda of 
Mexico. It is a pretty place, and, with its beau- 
tiful trees, flowers and fountains, forms a re- 
sort for the fashionable people, who congregate 
here on Sundays and feast days to listen to 
the military bands. The visitor can almost lose 
himself in this part, for the view is circum- 
scribed on every hand by the dense shrubbery. 

It is on the subject of the Paseo de la Re- 
forma that the Mexican becomes enthusiastic. 



70 Mexico and Her People To-day 

This beautiful boulevard extends for a distance 
of two miles from a place near the Alameda 
to Chapultepec. It is a smooth thoroughfare 
averaging five hundred feet in width, with 
promenades on each side shaded by trees under 
which are stone seats, and with paved drive- 
ways in the centre. Here and there the Paseo 
widens into circles, called glorietas, in the cen- 
tre of which are placed statues. Those already 
erected include statues to Charles IV of Spain, 
Columbus and Cuautemoc, the Aztec warrior 
and emperor. To Maximilian is due the credit 
for the Paseo, and a more beautiful boulevard 
cannot be found in Europe or America. 

I have purposely described the old features 
of the city and the unique characteristics before 
touching upon the more modern innovations. 
The average visitor would follow that plan, 
for he would be more interested in the unusual 
than in that with which he is more or less 
familiar. Like all capitals and large cities 
affected by commercialism, the City of Mexico 
is fast becoming cosmopolitan. The traveller 
who visited it ten, or even five, years ago would 
be astonished at the changes wrought by im- 
provements. The fine system of electric lights, 
the excellent electric traction lines with mod- 



The Capital 71 

ern, commodious cars, the asphalted streets 
and the attractive new suburbs of an entirely 
foreign ar(?hitecture, link the old with the new, 
the sixteenth with the twentieth century. A 
city hindered by a racial conservatism, and 
obstructed at every turn by tradition, does not 
become entirely modern in a decade, but the 
trend is there and its progress has been really 
remarkable. It will never be a city of sky- 
scrapers for a hard stratum is not encountered 
until a depth of a hundred and forty feet is 
reached. 

A new and modem hotel is more needed than 
anything else. There are plenty of hotels of 
the Mexican kind, where it is almost impossi- 
ble to find a room with an outside window. All 
the rooms simply have an opening on the patio 
which answers for both door and window. In 
cool weather which is sometimes experienced 
here, there is no means of heating these rooms 
except by an open pan of coals, which is not 
very satisfactory to one accustomed to modern 
steam-heated hotels or a good stove. 

The national government controls the federal 
district within which is situated the City of 
Mexico, much the same as the Dictrict of Co- 
lumbia, in our own land, and is assisted by a 
city council. Plans have been drawn for fifty 



72 Mexico and Her People To-day 



million dollars ' worth of public buildings, many 
of which are already under way. The fine new 
post-office which has been building for several 
years is now occupied by that department. It 
is a beautiful structure of the medieval Span- 
ish style, and is a striking departure from the 
other public buildings. It is four stories high, 
equipped with every convenience and is fin- 
ished within and without in elaborate style. 

A new legislative palace is under construc- 
tion, which is the most pretentious building 
yet planned. Its estimated cost is $20,000,000. 
Opposite the post-office a national theatre is 
being erected to cater to the amusement lovers, 
which is designed to be the finest theatre in 
the new world. An entire block is being razed 
to make room for the Panteon Nacional — a 
resting place for Mexico's illustrious dead. 
Within the marble walls of this unique memo- 
rial will rest all that is mortal of her heroes. 
An army and navy building, a museum of art 
and a department of public works are among 
the other improvements planned for the capital. 
These buildings are being scattered over the 
city instead of following the group plan as de- 
signed at Washington. The reason for this has 
been a desire to have every section of the city 
benefited and beautified by these public struc- 



The Capital 73 

tures. The year 1910 marked the centennial of 
Mexican independence. The month of Septem- 
ber was almost wholl}^ given up to celebrations 
of this event in the capital. A number of pub- 
lic buildings were dedicated during the celebra- 
tions. Among these were a new insane asylum 
and several fine new public school buildings, 
which greatly added to the educational facili- 
ties of the city. A magnificent new monument 
to independence, recently erected on the Paseo, 
was dedicated with great ceremony. A num- 
ber of gifts were made by foreign colonies and 
governments. Not the least of these was a 
monument to Washington, which was presented 
by the resident Americans. The ceremonies 
and functions of the centennial celebration 
were A^er3'' elaborate, and the capital has been 
beautified in many ways as a result. 

Note to Second Revised Edition. Considerable damage has 
been done to the city through the successive occupations by the 
revolutionary forces and by the street fighting that has taken 
place. Furthermore, the progress of public improvements has 
been greatly retarded. It is fortunate indeed that the public 
buildings have been of such a substantial nature that so little 
damaore has resulted. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE VALLEY OF ANAHUAO 

The dim traditionary history of Mexico 
shows us shadowy tribes flitting across the 
stage, each acting its part like the different 
performers in a vaudeville show, and then mak- 
ing way for other actors. The Valley of Mex- 
ico, or Anahuac, meaning '^ near the water," 
seems to have been the centre of the civiliza- 
tion of these early tribes. It is a beautiful 
valley nearly sixty miles in length and thirty 
in breadth, and is enclosed by a wall of moun- 
tains which circumscribe the view in every 
direction. Six shallow lakes lie in this hollow: 
Texcoco, Xochimilco, San Cristobal, Xaltocan, 
Zumpango and Chalco, of which the first named 
is the nearest to the city and lies distant about 
three miles. It is easy to believe that the 
waters of these lakes at one time entirely sur- 
rounded the ancient city of Tenochtitlan, for 
within historic times their shores have greatly 
receded. 

74 



The Valley of Anahuac 75 

The history of these early races rests mostly 
upon tradition ; yet a diversity of architectural 
ruins, and the few meagre records that remain, 
present certain general facts. These positive 
proofs leave no doubt that this valley was in- 
habited from a very early period by tribes or 
nations which made distinct advances in civili- 
zation. These tribes had developed certain of 
the useful arts and had evolved a social system 
that exhibited some refinement. The first of 
these races of whom we have reliable record 
are the Toltecs, who appeared in the Valley 
of Mexico in the seventh century at almost 
the same time that Mohammed was spreading 
his religion over Asia and Africa. Their 
sway lasted about five centuries, when 'they 
disappeared as silently and mysteriously as 
they came. 

These peaceful and agricultural people were 
succeeded by the Chichimecs, a more barbarous 
race, who came from the north. They in turn 
were followed by the Nahuals. Lastly came the 
Aztecs, who entered the valley about 1196, and 
reached a higher state of civilization than any 
of their predecessors. War was their choicest 
profession, for they considered that warriors 
slain in battle were immediately transported to 
scenes of ineffable bliss. They offered human 



76 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
sacrifices to their gods. Prescott tells us of 
a procession of captives two miles long, and 
numbering seventy thousand persons who were 
sacrificed at one time. This is incredible, for 
at that rate the population would soon have 
been exhausted even in this prolific land. Fur- 
thermore we know that the Aztecs were not 
always successful in war, and may have fur- 
nished victims from their own numbers, for 
sacrifice to the gods of the other nations in the 
same land. 

The Aztecs were clever workers in gold and 
silver, and were acquainted with a number of 
arts that are lost to-day. Their picture writ- 
ings bear witness to a clever fancy and fertile 
invention of symbols. The numerous idols 
show their skill in carving and a true artistic 
instinct. Many antiquites have been exhumed 
from the swampy soil on which the capital city 
is built, in making excavations for improve- 
ments. The National Museum is a treasure 
house of these relics and it would take a volume 
to describe them. The huge Sacrificial Stone, 
which is generally supposed to have been placed 
on the top of the great altar, is preserved there. 
It also houses the horrible image of the god 
Huitzilopochtli, and a varied assortment of in- 
ferior gods, goddesses, and other objects of 




THE CALENDAR STONE 



The Valley of Anahuac 77 

worship. But the most celebrated antiquity — 
the one showing the greatest advancement — is 
the Calendar Stone. This stone was buried 
for centuries, and when resurrected was placed 
in the west tower of the cathedral. From this 
place it was removed a few years ago and 
placed in the museum. It is a mighty stone, 
eleven feet and eight inches in diameter, and 
weighs more than twenty tons. The Aztecs 
divided the year into eighteen months of twenty 
days each, and then arbitrarily added five days 
to complete the year. 

" Let us follow the cross, and if we have 
faith we will conquer," was the motto on the 
banner of Cortez. It was with this spirit that 
he led his little band over the mountains and 
into the heart of the empire of Montezuma, late 
in the fall of 1519. He was met by that sov- 
ereign, tradition says, on the site of the pres- 
ent Hospital of Jesus, with every manifesta- 
tion of friendliness. For several months they 
were the honoured guests of the Aztec chief, 
but at length the aggressions of the Spaniards 
changed friendship to hate and the Aztecs, ris- 
ing in their wrath, chased the invaders from 
the city. Driven before the infuriated natives 
like sheep, they fled over the present road to 
the suburban village of Tacuba, and many were 



78 Mexico and Her People To-day 



those who fell. This rout of the Spaniards has 
been painted with wonderful vividness by Gen. 
Lew Wallace in '' The Fair God." 

It was an awful night of despair, that first 
day of July, 1520, and the Spaniards who es- 
caped named it La Noche Triste, " the sorrow- 
ful night." The pursuit stopped at the little 
town of Popotla. In this village is a great 
cypress tree whose branches are blasted by the 
storms of centuries. For a moment the strong 
will of Cortez gave way and he sat down upon 
a stone under the spreading branches of this 
tree and wept. Whether he wept most for his 
fallen soldiers or disappointment over his ig- 
nominious defeat, we are not told by the chron- 
iclers. This tree is now noted as el arhol de la 
noche triste, or " the tree of the sorrowful 
night. ' ' A high iron fence protects the ancient 
relic from the souvenir vandals. 

The Spaniards retreated beyond the valley 
to their allies, the Tlaxcalans, at Cholula. Ee- 
inforcements and supplies arriving, they re- 
turned a few months later and began the 
memorable siege of Tenochtitlan, and made a 
triumphal entry into that city on th© 13th of 
August, 1521. Then Guatemotzin, the last of 
the Aztec emperors, wept in his turn, because 
the sacred fires of the temple had for ever gone 



The Valley of Anahuac 79 

out, and Ms people would henceforth be slaves. 
'' Take that dagger," he said, *' and free this 
spirit." But, no, torture must come before 
death, for Cortez fain would learn where the 
gold was hidden that had so suddenly disap- 
peared. Today, in the City of Mexico, a statue 
stands in one of the circles of the famous Paseo, 
which commemorates this great warrior and 
his torture by the Spanish chieftain. This 
monument is greatly cherished by the Indians, 
who hold annual festivals in his honour and 
decorate it with a profusion of flowers and 
wreaths. 

The great Valley of Mexico is without a nat- 
ural outlet, and this fact has caused seven in- 
undations of the capital during exceptionally 
rainy seasons. One of the lakes, Zumpango, is 
twenty-five feet higher than the city and drains 
into Texcoco, from which the waters spread 
over the city. When the first serious inunda- 
tions came in 1553, 1580 and 1604, the project 
of removing the city to a higher level was 
strongly agitated. It was only the loss of mil- 
lions of dollars of property that prevented 
this action. Then the idea of draining this 
valley was definitely adopted and the work was 
begun in 1607. A tunnel was decided upon 
and fifteen thousand Indians were set at work 



80 Mexico and Her People To-day 

sinking shafts and driving the tunnel in both 
directions. Within a year a tunnel four miles 
long had been completed. This tunnel eventu- 
ally caved in, so that very little good was real- 
ized from it and efforts were made to convert 
it into an open cut. But this undertaking was 
not finished until two centuries later. It is a 
great trench, however, with an average depth 
of from one hundred and fifty to two hundred 
feet, and from three hundred to seven hundred 
feet in width at the top. It is called the Tajo 
de NocJiistongo, or Nochistongo cut, and its 
only use now is as an entrance for the Mexican 
Central railway. Even this waterway did not 
drain the valley, remarkable engineering feat 
as it was, but a new canal was constructed by 
American engineers a few years ago which suc- 
cessfully accomplishes the work of draining 
these shallow lakes and carrying off the sewer- 
age of the city. 

The first Aztecs who settled in this valley 
lived almost entirely in the marshes and lakes, 
we are told, because of the hostility of their 
fierce neighbours. They were thus obliged to 
depend almost wholly upon the products of 
these watered lands for their sustenance, and 
they acquired some strange and — we would 
say — depraved tastes. A reminder of those 



The Valley of Anahuac 81 

days is seen in the cakes made of the eggs of 
a curious marsh-fly, which are sold in the mar- 
ket of the City of Mexico today. The flies them- 
selves are pounded into a paste and sold after 
being boiled, but the eggs are preferred. The 
Indians collect the eggs in a systematic manner. 
Bundles of a certain kind of sedge are planted 
in Lake Texcoco and the insects deposit their 
eggs thereon in great quantities. These bun- 
dles as soon as covered are shaken over pieces 
of cloth and replaced for another supply. The 
eggs thus collected are made into a paste and 
form a favourite article of food, especially 
during Lent. 

It is interesting to learn what different races 
regard as toothsome dainties. In Southern 
Mexico I have seen bushels of common grass- 
hoppers sold in the markets as a delicacy, re- 
minding one of the locusts and wild honey used 
as food in Biblical times. In other parts of 
Mexico the honey-ant is greatly sought after 
for food. The natives of Central America are 
partial to the iguana, a large lizard sometimes 
reaching a length of three or four feet, and pre- 
fer it to beef. After all there is no accounting 
for tastes. A man who eats snails might criti- 
cize another who relishes oysters. And per- 
haps the man who want his cheese " ripe " 



82 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
should not criticize the poor Indian who has 
inherited a taste for the eggs of the fly. 

There are many places of interest round 
about the City of Mexico which are easily 
reached. One should not fail to visit the fa- 
mous jardines flotandos or'' floating gardens " 
where the beautiful flowers sold in the market 
are grown. These gardens, called by the Az- 
tecs chinampas, are reached by the Viga Canal. 
The inquirer is told to take a gondola and float 
down to them. The name gondola excites pleas- 
ant anticipations of a delightful trip. Enter- 
ing a mule-car at the Plaza Mayor the canal is 
soon reached after traversing a number of nar- 
row streets which would not especially delight 
the fastidious traveller. The gondoliers take 
the stranger almost by force and urge him into 
one of the flea-infested boats that abound at the 
landing, and which more resemble a collection 
of mud-scows than any other kind of floating 
fleet. Instead of using oars these queer gon- 
doliers with the picture hats pole the boat 
through the muddy waters of La Viga, stirring 
up odoitrs which cause the passenger to wish 
that he was not gifted with the sense of smell, 
or that he could temporarily dispense with 
breathing. However, there is life in the stream 
and on the banks that is typically Mexican, for 




SCENES ON THK VIGA CANAL 



The Valley of Anahuac 83 

boats are constantly passing up and down. Oc- 
casionally a load of Indians will float by play- 
ing native airs on guitars and other string 
instruments, with the light-heartedness and 
gaiety peculiar to this race. On the bank are 
scattered many native thatch huts around which 
idle natives group. Along the road pass men 
and women going to and from the city with 
loads on their heads or on their backs. The 
" floating gardens " are always just beyond. 
They are first at Santa Anita but, when this 
place is reached, they are at Mexicalcingo. 
Arrived there the visitor is sent to Ixtacalco, 
and then he is forwarded to Xochimulco, and 
so the real floating gardens are never reached. 
The fact is that they do not float and perhaps 
never did. This characteristic only exists in 
the imagination, for it sounds romantic to speak 
of gardens that can be moved around and an- 
chored at will. 

Disembarking at an unattractive mud and 
thatch village bearing the charming name of 
Santa Anita, self constituted guides are waiting 
to conduct you to the object of your visit, some- 
thing which does not literally exist. Yet the 
" floating gardens " are all about you at this 
place. They are simply marsh lands with ca- 
nals leading in and out and crossways by means 



84 Mexico and Her People To-day 

of which the gardener can reach all parts in 
his boat. The earth may yield somewhat if you 
step upon it, but they do not float. It is possi- 
ble, and historians so assert, that floating gar- 
dens did exist in reality during the Aztec inva- 
sion. These people were frequently driven to 
dire extremities to secure food. They may have 
adopted the plan of making floating gardens 
which could be moved about as necessity com- 
pelled. This was done by culling masses of 
vegetation with its thick entwined stems and 
pouring upon this mat the rich mud dredged 
from the bottom of the lake. Then, as the 
masses settled, more mud was put on until the 
whole anchored upon the bottom of the lake 
and became immovable. The gardens look 
beautiful, covered as they are with the many- 
coloured blossoms. By means of the canals the 
roots are kept thoroughly moist at all times, 
and the plants thrive luxuriantly. 

This canal of La Viga was formerly a great 
trade route, for a large part of the natives came 
to the City of Mexico by this way. It leads 
back into regions where dwell full blooded Az- 
tecs who speak a language that is said to be 
almost the pure ancient tongue. These natives 
can be distinguished from all others on the 
street and in the market by their features and 



The Valley of Anahuac 85 

peculiar dress. They are clannish and keep by 
themselves, except in the intercourse made 
necessary by barter and trade. They are proud 
of their lineage and rejoice in the fact that they 
have not mingled with the other native races. 

Tacuba, distant only a few miles, is an inter- 
esting little village, and has many gardens and 
a fine old church. It is a good place to study 
the people and get snap-shots of quaint life. 
Its principal distinction is that it was a proud 
city when Tetlepanquetzaltzin was king once 
upon a time. Texcoco at the time of the con- 
quest was the capital of the Tezcucans, who 
were a race in alliance with the Aztecs, but it 
is now principally in ruins, for its glory has 
passed away. El Desierto was once the home 
of the Carmelite monks and is frequently vis- 
ited now in its decay. Coyoacan was the first 
capital of Mexico, for Cortez established the 
seat of government there for a time while the 
new city was being built. 

Tacubaya is the home of the wealthy as well 
as the sporting element. It has beautiful gar- 
dens within the adobe walls surrounding the 
homes of the opulent. It is on higher ground 
and should have been the site of the capital city 
itself. It is also called the Monte Carlo of 
Mexico, for gamblers of all sorts and conditions 



86 Mexico and Her People To-day 

congregate here in booths or under umbrellas, 
and you can lose any sum at games of chance 
as at that famous resort along the shores of the 
blue Mediterranean. Games, music, dancing, 
cock-fights, and bull-fights are a few of the at- 
tractions to amuse and entertain the visitor, 
and relieve him from the burden of carrying 
around the weighty silver pesos. 

In all this beautiful and historic Valley of 
Mexico there is no more beautiful spot, or none 
around which so many memories cling, as Cha- 
pultepec, the Hill of the Grasshoppers. His- 
toric and beautiful Chapultepec ! A great grove 
of noble cypresses draped with masses of Span- 
ish moss surrounds this rock, and between the 
trees and along the shores of a pretty little lake 
wind enchanting walks. One grand old cypress 
called Montezuma's tree rises to a height of 
one hundred and seventy feet. It is a magnifi- 
cent breathing spot — with which no park that 
I have ever seen in America compares. Legend 
says that on the top of this rock was situated 
the palace of Montezuma, and it is probably 
only legend. No doubt that emperor often 
rested himself under the friendly shade of the 
great ahuehuete, and reflected on the glory of 
his empire before the disturbing foreigners 
came. The present Castle of Chapultepec dates 



The Valley of Anahuac 87 

from 1783 when it was begun by one of the 
viceroys. Later viceroys, presidents and an 
emperor added to the original building until 
now it is a palace indeed but not a beautiful 
structure. Ill-fated Maximilian made this his 
home and added greatly to the beauty of the 
grounds. It is now the White House of Mexico' 
although occupied only a part of the year by the 
president. 

Perhaps nowhere in the world does there 
exist a more beautiful scene than that which 
unfolds to the view from this rock. All around 
is the great sweep of plain with its wealth of 
cultivated fields; the distant mountain range 
with its ever varying outline ; the snow-capped 
twin peaks, Popocatapetl (seventeen thousand, 
seven hundred and eighty-two feet) and Ixtac- 
cihuatl (sixteen thousand and sixty feet), stand- 
ing like silent sentinels and dominating the 
horizon; the silver line of the lakes; and be- 
neath us the fair City of Mexico, the ancient 
Tenochtitlan. Legend says that Popocatepetl, 
'' the smoking mountain," and Ixtaccihuatl, 
' ' the woman in white, ' ' were once living giants 
but that having displeased the Almighty they 
were changed to mountains. The woman died 
and the contour of her body covered with snow 
can be traced on the summit of the smaller 



88 Mexico and Her People To-day 

peak. The man was doomed to live for ever 
and gaze on the sleeping form of his beloved. 
At times when his grief becomes uncontrolla- 
ble he shakes with his great sobs and pours 
forth tears of fire. 

As I stood on that historic rock I thought 
of the New World Venice described by Pres- 
cott, " with its shining cities and flowering 
islets rocking, as it were, at anchor on the fair 
bosom of the waters." Rising above all was 
the great sacrificial altar upon which the sa- 
cred fires were ever kept burning. Beneath 
this rock under the friendly branches of the 
giant cypress Montezuma has no doubt shel- 
tered himself from the hot sun. Cortez here 
rested himself after his severe marches. 
French zouaves in their quaint uniforms have 
bivouacked in the grove. American blue- 
coats stacked their arms here after the vic- 
tory of Molino-del-Eay. And Mexicans now 
take their siestas under the same friendly 
shade while other races are robbing them of 
their wealth. 

Yes, historic scenes and tragedies have taken 
place on this plain. Nations have come and 
gone. Victors have themselves been led away 
captives, and taskmasters have in turn become 
slaves. How finite is man or his works in the 



The Valley of Anahuac 89 

presence of this great panorama of nature! 
Eaces have come and gone but the mountains 
endure. Human tragedies have been enacted 
here but the sky is just as blue and the sun just 
as bright, as when Cortez looked with envious 
eyes upon this beautiful valley. The mimic 
play of men, and women and races upon this 
amphitheatre has scarcely left its imprint. 
The only occasions when the calm serenity of 
nature has been disturbed were when the giant 
Popocatapetl, overcome with grief at the loss 
of his beloved, has shaken this whole valley 
with his sobs and poured forth plenteous tears 
of fire over its fair surface. 



CHAPTER V 



THE TROPICS 



In no country in the world is it possible to 
move from one extreme of climate to the other 
in so short a time as in Mexico. Within less 
than twenty-four hours one can travel from 
the sun-baked sands of the Gulf coast to the 
snow-covered, conical peak of one of the great 
extinct volcanoes, thus traversing every zone 
of vegetable life from the dense tropical 
growth of the former to the stunted pines of 
the latter. By railway it is a journey of only 
a few hours from the plateaus, at an altitude 
of eight thousand feet, to the sea level, and a 
most interesting ride it is. The Mexican Rail- 
way, which is the oldest railway in the repub- 
lic, runs from the capital to Vera Cruz and is 
the best route, for its wonderful engineering 
feats and beautiful scenery have drawn tour- 
ists from all parts of the world. Leaving the 
capital, the road skirts the bank of Lake Tex- 
coco, through a pass in the mountains sur- 

90 



The Tropics 91 

rounding the Valley of Mexico, and across the 
Plains of Apam, the home of the maguey, for 
a hundred and fifty miles before the exciting 
part of the trip is reached. 

The descent begins at Esperanza, which lies 
at the very foot of Mt. Orizaba. Esperanza 
means " hope" and it is well named for the 
traveller can '' hope " for better things as the 
train approaches the coast. Noah's Ark rests 
near here, for I saw it with my own eyes la- 
belled in plain letters, Arc de Noe, but it is 
now — sad to tell — devoted to the sale of 
pulque. Esperanza is eight thousand and 
forty-four feet above the sea and one hundred 
and twelve miles from Vera Cruz as the track 
runs, but much nearer as the crow would fly. 
There is a drop of four thousand, one hundred 
feet in the next twenty-nine miles and it is 
one of the grandest rides in the world. In 
places the road seems like a little shelf on the 
side of a towering mountain while a yawning 
chasm awaits the coach below. As soon as 
Boca del Monte (Mouth of the Mountain) is 
reached, only a few miles from Esperanza, the 
downward impetus is felt and all the energy 
of the curious double-ended English engines is 
devoted to holding back the heavy train with 
its human cargo. 



92 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
Passing through a tunnel here, the scene 
bursts upon the traveller without any warning 
or prelude, in all its grandeur and magnifi- 
cence. The engine accommodatingly stops for 
water so that the passengers have an oppor- 
tunity to view this wonderful panorama. Mal- 
trata nestles in the hollow, a dozen miles away 
by rail, yet the red tiles of the roofs, a red- 
domed church and the ever-present plaza gleam 
in the sunshine two thousand feet directly 
underneath. The valley is almost flat and is 
divided into squares by hedges and walls and, 
reflecting every shade of green, looks like a 
checker-board arrangement of nature. Be- 
yond the valley, hill succeeds hill until they are 
lost in the purple haze of the horizon, or are 
overtopped by snow-capped Orizaba. Indians 
appear here with beautiful bouquets of roses, 
tulips and orchids, with their yellow, pink and 
red centres, for sale. The train passes on over 
a narrow bridge spanning a deep chasm and 
down the mountain until Maltrata is reached, 
where the same Indians will greet you with 
the same bouquets, for they have climbed down 
the two thousand feet in less time than it took 
the train to reach the same level. 

Leaving Maltrata the road enters a canon 
called El Infernillo, the Little Hell, goes 



The Tropics 93 

through a tunnel and another beautiful valley, 
running through fertile fields and by wooded 
hills, until Orizaba, the border-land of the 
tropics, is reached. 

This city at an altitude of four thousand feet 
is in the ticrra templada, the temperate region. 
This zone is as near paradise in the matter of 
climate as any location on earth could well be. 
It retains most of the beauties and few of the 
annoying insects and tropical fevers of the hot 
zone. It has the moisture of the lowlands with 
the cool breezes of the uplands and is well 
named " temperate zone " because of its fine 
climate and equable temperature. 

Orizaba is a town of thirty-five thousand 
people and a very beautiful and interesting 
place with its palm-shaded streets and low 
Moorish buildings. Its Alameda is a quaint, 
shady park with an abundance of flowers and 
blooming trees. Along the street the orange 
trees thrust their laden branches out into the 
highway over the low adobe walls. On the 
banks of the stream the washerwomen beat 
their clothes to a snowy white upon the smooth 
round stones. Life moves along in smooth, 
easy channels with these people. And it is 
not to be wondered at, for there is 



94 Mexico and Her People To-day 

A sense of rest 

To the tired breast 

In this beauteous Aztec town." 

Between Orizaba and Cordoba, a distance of 
sixteen miles, is perhaps the best cultivated 
section in Mexico. The products of all the 
zones are mingled and corn and coffee grow 
side by side as well as peach trees and the 
banana. Cordoba is just on the border of the 
tierra caliente, or hot country proper, and is 
a much smaller city than Orizaba. It is a very 
old town and was founded as a place of refuge 
from the malarial fevers of the coast lands. 
This region is noted for its fine coffee, and 
there are numberless coffee plantations as well 
as many sugar haciendas. The Mexican of the 
tropics can be seen here dressed in immaculate 
white. Leaving Cordoba dense tropical for- 
ests of palm and palmetto begin to appear. 
These alternate with groves of coffee and ba- 
nanas, gardens of mangoes, fields of pine- 
apples and other tropical fruits. Nature be- 
gins to manifest herself in her grandest pro- 
ductions. Birds of brilliant plumage are seen. 
The towering trees, rocks and entire surface 
of the soil are covered with bright flowers such 
as orchids, oleanders and honeysuckles and 
luxuriant vines. These and the dense jungles 



The Tropics 95 

are all reminders that the tropics have been 
reached at last. Soon the train enters Vera 
Oruz, the city without cabs, the landing-place 
of the great conquistador and his cohorts. 

The principal port now, as it has always been 
since the landing of Cortez on the twenty-first 
day of April, 1519, is Vera Cruz, or, as he 
named it, La Villa Rica de Vera Cruz — i}ie 
Rich City of the True Cross. Most Americans 
who pass through here leave by the very first 
train or boat for fear of pestilence. I met one 
fellow-countryman there who was almost be- 
side himself because the boat he had expected 
to take was delayed a couple of days. This 
city is reputed to be the favourite loafing-place 
of the stegomyia fasciata whose bite results in 
the vomito, or yellow fever. If all the sensa- 
tional reports sent out concerning this city 
were true then '' Pandora's box was not a 
circumstance to the evils which Vera Cruz con- 
tains." I had read in Mr. Ober's excellent 
work on Mexico of an American consul who 
died here just thirteen days after reaching the 
port that iis ambition had led him to ; and of 
the terrible ravages of the scourge when deaths 
were averaging forty per day. I arrived there 
after night had set in. Eating a light supper 
and seeing that my name was duly posted on 



96 Mexico and Her People To-day 

the big blackboard bulletin according to the 
custom prevailing there, I retired to my room, 
and only breathed freely after securely draw- 
ing the mosquito netting around mv bed so that 
it would be impossible for a stegomyia to get 
through. 

It was almost a surprise on the following 
morning to find able-bodied Americans and 
husky Englishmen pursuing their avocations 
in an unconcerned way as though such things 
as yellow fever or smallpox were not to be 
thought of. Then, again, I was alarmed at the 
numerous red flags hanging out, which I took 
to be quarantine flags, for everything is dif- 
ferent here. Upon investigation this alarm 
was dispelled, for those places proved to be 
pulque-shops and the flag meant that a fresh 
supply of the " liquor divine " had just been 
received. It is probably true that Vera Cruz 
was a hot-bed for the vomito a few years ago, 
but Mexican statistics report only twelve deaths 
in 1904 and one hundred and twenty-two in 
1905 from this disease, which is not bad for 
a city of thirty thousand people, where a large 
proportion of the population cannot be made 
to obey the ordinary laws of sanitation. I 
doubt whether the death rate is much greater 
than in our own cities on the Gulf coast. This 



The Tropics 97 

change is due to the better situation that has 
been brought about by the authorities. 

An adequate supply of pure water was the 
first important step in this move for improved 
conditions. This was secured by utilizing the 
water of the Jamapa Eiver at a point about 
twelve miles distant and passing this water 
through several filtering beds before turning it 
into the mains which supply the city. A sew- 
erage system has been constructed, by means 
of which the sewerage is carried out and dis- 
charged into deep water so that the harbour 
will not be contaminated. Disinfecting sta- 
tions have been established and a plant for the 
disposition of garbage. Then in addition to 
the regular force of health officers, there is a 
large volunteer street cleaning brigade. These 
volunteer forces are not on the pay-roll and 
yet they do their work in a thorough manner 
even if their methods cannot be approved. 
Their only reward is the enforcement of a fine 
of five dollars for the protection of their lives. 
By the natives these street cleaners are called 
zopilotes but to an American they are plain, 
everyday buzzards. Hundreds of these birds 
can be seen perched on the roof-tops or wad- 
dling through the streets. 

For centuries the port of Vera Cruz was the 



98 Mexico and Her People To-day 

bane of vessel owners for there was no protec- 
tion from the severe " Northers " so prevalent 
on the Gulf and it was one of the most incon- 
venient and dangerous harbours on that coast. 
It was for this reason that Cortez destroyed 
the vessels which had brought his forces over 
from Cuba. An excellent harbour has been 
constructed at great cost and ocean-going ves- 
sels can now anchor alongside of the main pier 
and unload. A large new union station will at 
once be erected by the four railways entering 
this city on a site adjoining the pier, which will 
further increase the facilities of this port. 

The fortress of San Juan de Ulua, now a 
prison, and which is reached by a short sail 
through the shark-infested harbour, is an in- 
teresting structure and has seen many vicissi- 
tudes. Used as a fort for several centuries by 
the Spaniards, it has successively been occu- 
pied by the French, Americans, and again by 
the French and their allies in the war of the 
intervention. The buildings in Vera Cruz are 
nearly all low, one-storied structures of adobe, 
and the walls are tinted in red, yellow, blue 
and green, thus furnishing to the eye a pleas- 
ing variety and, with the bay, reminding one 
of Cadiz in old Spain. There is an attractive 
plaza and an imposing avenue of the cocoanut 



The Tropics 99 

palm. Vera Cruz is the gateway to the capital 
and many millions of imports and exports pass 
through here each year, as much as at all the 
other ports of Mexico combined, leaving out 
Progresso, on the Yucatan coast, through 
which the henequen traffic is carried. 

Tampico is the second Gulf port in impor- 
tance and on the completion of a direct route 
to the capital will be a close rival to Vera Cruz. 
Coatzacoalcos is the Gulf port of the Tehuan- 
tepec railway and will become an important 
port. The Pacific coast affords better natural 
harbours. Acapulco is one of the finest natural 
land-locked harbours in the world. Though 
now of secondary importance because of the 
absence of railroad connections, at one time 
this picturesque harbour sheltered the old 
Spanish galleons engaged in the East India 
trade. Their freight was unloaded there and 
transported overland on the backs of burros 
and mules to Vera Cruz and re-shipped to 
Spain. Manzanillo is an important seaport on 
that coast and will soon be connected by rail 
with the capital, when its importance will be 
greatly increased. Other important ports on 
that coast are Mazatlan, Guayamas, San Bias 
and Salina Cruz, the Pacific port of the Te- 



100 Mexico and Her People To-day 

huantepec route, where the great harbour is 
nearly completed. 

The tierra caliente comprises a fringe of low 
plains which extend inland from the coast a 
distance varying from a few miles in width to 
a hundred or more. From thence it rises by 
a succession of terraces until the great inland 
plateaus are reached. The higher the altitude 
the lower the temperature, and it is estimated 
that there is a change of 1.8 degree Fahrenheit 
for each sixty feet of elevation in this region. 
This zone is characterized by the grandeur and 
variety of vegetable life, and it is an almost 
uninterrupted forest except where it has been 
cleared. A ride through the tropics is a reve- 
lation of what nature can do when aided by 
a never-ending succession of warm sunshine 
and abundant rain upon rich soil. Trees of 
great height and size are interspersed among 
plants which are generally of a tree-like na- 
ture, and are conspicuous for the development 
of their trunks and ramifications. The innu- 
merable species of reeds and creeping plants 
that entwine themselves in a thousand differ- 
ent ways among the trees and plants make a 
passage almost impossible. It is for this rea- 
son that the natives always go around armed 
with the machete, a long blade very much like 



The Tropics 101 

a corn-cutter, for it enables them to cut their 
way through the dense undergrowth, and is a 
protection, should any danger be encountered. 
The palms which are ever associated with the 
tropics are seen in great profusion and in 
countless varieties. Millions of ferns and 
broad-leaved plants which would be welcomed 
in the gardens and groves of northern homes 
are wasting their graceful beauty in these 
jungles and wildernesses. Trees are covered 
with beautiful orchids and vines coil about the 
trunks and limbs like great snakes, and then 
drop down to the earth and take root again in 
the damp soil. 

To those who know them the tropics are not 
so terrible, treacherous though they may seem. 
Some enter this zone with a feeling of creepi- 
ness as though they were entering a darkened 
sick-room sheltering some malignant disease. 
They hesitate to breathe for fear that the very 
air is poisonous and they may take in the 
germs of some malady with an unpronounce- 
able name. They shrink from nature as 
though she had ceased to be the kind mother 
to which they were accustomed in the colder 
climates. It is true that there is something 
horribly creepy and uncanny about this inevi- 
table tropical growth, which is so frail and 



102 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
fragile outwardly but seems possessed of an 
unconquerable vitality. And yet in many of 
the so-called unhealthy places, there is scarcely 
more danger to health than elsewhere, if one 
but observes the same rules of right living. 
Continuous hard labour, such as the northern 
farmer is accustomed to devote to his little 
farm, is not possible. Exposure to the intense 
heat of the sun at midday and the heavy rains 
will bring on fevers and malaria just as surely 
as it produces the luxuriant vegetation. For 
this reason the tropics will probably never be 
suited for colonization by the small farmer 
who is fascinated with the possibilities offered 
by land capable of producing two or three 
crops in a single year. 

In general, Mexico is poorly supplied with 
rivers. However, along the Atlantic coast they 
are very numerous and large, although not 
navigable for any great distance, or for vessels 
large enough to be of much aid to commerce. 
The size of the rivers is due to the great 
amount of raijifall, which varies from seventy 
to one hundred and eighty inches annually. 
When this is compared to an annual rainfall 
of twenty to forty inches in the northern states 
of the United States, the conditions in the trop- 
ics are better understood. This excessive rain- 



The Tropics 103 

fall washes down earth from the higher ground 
and this, together with the layers of vegetable 
mold, have formed soil from eight to fourteen 
feet in depth thus making it practically inex- 
haustible. The temperature varies from 70° 
to 100° Fahrenheit. The Pacific coast has a 
higher temperature and less rainfall than the 
Grulf coast. However, there is a stretch of land 
extending north of Acapulco along the coast 
and from eight to thirty miles wide that is 
unrivalled for tropical beauty and productive- 
ness. There are many rivers and streams that 
traverse this land on the way from the great 
mountains to the Pacific. 

There is a charm about the life in the hot- 
lands that is missing in other parts of Mexico. 
Of all the inhabitants of that country, the life 
of the people in the hot country is the most 
interesting. This is probably due to the fact 
that these people have aways had more free- 
dom than the Indians on the plateaus who were 
practically slaves for a couple of centuries. 
The great estates there required sure help and 
the natives were reduced to serfs. In the mines 
they were worked with soldiers set over them 
as guards. In the hotlands it was easier to 
make a living, for a bountiful nature supplied 
nearly all their wants. And yet many employ- 



104 Mexico and Her People To-day 



ers of labour say that the peon from the hot 
country makes the most satisfactory worlanan. 
These Indians seem like a superior race. For 
one thing they are scrupulously clean which, 
in itself, is a pleasing contrast to the daily 
sights in Northern Mexico. Water is abundant 
everywhere; the extreme heat renders bathing 
a great comfort and their clothes are kept im- 
maculate. They are fond of social life and 
almost every night groups can be seen gath- 
ered together in some kind of entertainment. 
Their homes are different from those in the 
colder lands. The houses of the middle and 
lower classes are built of bamboo or other light 
material found in the tropical jungles, and 
thatched with palm leaves. The upright bam- 
boo poles are often set an inch or more apart 
thus giving a free circulation of air. An In- 
dian village generally consists of one long, 
winding, irregular street lined on each side by 
these picturesque huts, and bearing a strong 
resemblance to a village in the interior of 
Africa. Down these streets , swarm in equal 
profusion half-naked babies and children long 
past the childhood stage dressed in the same 
simple way, and hungry looking dogs. The 
hot country is sparsely populated in compari- 
son with the plateaus and there are no large 



The Tropics 105 

t — 

cities, although archeologists tell us that the 

earliest civilization seems to have been located 

there. It could support a population many, 

many times larger with ease. 

The most productive parts of the world are 
found in the tierra caliente which instead of 
being given up to impenetrable jungles, the 
homes of reptiles and breeding place of poi- 
sonous insects, should be made to produce 
those luxuries and necessaries which contrib- 
ute to make civilized life tolerable. All over 
the world the fruits and other articles of the 
tropics are coming into greater demand each 
year. In the year 1906 the United States im- 
ported fruits and other food products of trop- 
ical countries, not including coffee, to the value 
of more than $150,000,000, or nearly two dol- 
lars for each man, woman and child in the 
country. Of the purely tropical products, 
sugar was by far the largest item on the list. 
Bananas to the amount of $11,500,000 were 
brought in, and were second on the list with 
cacao a close rival for this place. 

As yet Mexico supplies but a small portion 
of these articles to the United States. Yet the 
possibilities of agriculture here are equal to 
those of any similar lands, and this, together 
with superior transportation facilities and a 



106 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
stable government, ought to greatly increase 
the trade. In addition to the above items, this 
soil is well adapted to the following fruits and 
useful products, all of which are native to the 
soil: oranges, lemons, limes, pineapples, grape- 
fruit, vanilla bean, indigo, rubber, coffee, to- 
bacco and many drug-producing plants. It is 
difficult for the small farmer to succeed, as he 
cannot do all his own labour in that climate 
and cannot get satisfactory help just when it 
is needed. He could not afford to hire a force 
of labourers by the year. Successful farming 
in the tropics can only be done on a large scale 
with a regular force of labourers maintained 
on the plantation. The title to the soil can be 
purchased cheaply but the first cost of the land 
is probably not more than one-third of the ulti- 
mate cost by the time it is cleared, planted, and 
the necessary improvements made. Further- 
more many tropical plants such as coffee, rub- 
ber and cacao require several years of care 
before there is a profitable yield. 

Coffee and banana culture go hand in hand, 
for the broad leaves of the banana provide the 
shade so necessary to the young coffee trees. 
The banana also furnishes a little revenue dur- 
ing the four or five years before the coffee 
trees have fully matured. The coffee region 



The Tropics 107 

is very extensive, for it will grow at a height 
of from one to five thousand feet, and flour- 
ishes best at an altitude of two to three thou- 
sand feet. It requires plenty of warmth and 
moisture. The coffee, which is a tree and not 
a bush, is set out in rows several feet apart, 
and will grow twenty feet tall if permitted, but 
is not allowed to grow half that height. The 
tree is flowering and developing fruit all the 
time but the principal harvest is in the late 
fall. It is not allowed to ripen on the tree, for 
when the green berries have turned a bright 
red, they are gathered, dried in the sun, hulled 
and then marketed. The states of Vera Cruz 
and Chiapas produce the choicest coffee, but 
it is cultivated all over the republic where it is 
possible. Coffee was introduced into this coun- 
try from Arabia by Spanish priests and was 
found to be adapted to the soil. The best 
grades are sent to Europe, for it is a common 
saying throughout Mexico and Central Amer- 
ica that only the poor grades of coffee are sent 
to the United States. This is rather a slur on 
the tastes of the American people, but such is 
our reputation down there. 

'* Looking at it from my point of view — 
the lazy man's outlook — I can see nothing so 
inviting as coffee culture, unless it be a fat 



108 Mexico and Her People To-day 

' living ' in an English country church," says 
a writer. For myself, the one thing that ap- 
pealed to me above all others was the culti- 
vation of the banana. The returns are quick, 
the income regular and the profits large. I 
travelled through the banana region of Hon- 
duras, where for thirty miles the railroad 
passed by one plantation after another of the 
broad-leaved banana plants growing as high 
as fifteen feet. Great fortunes have been made 
by the banana-growers of that country and 
Costa Eica. This fruit flourishes best in the 
lowlands. The preparation of the ground is 
very simple, for the young banana plants are 
set out among the piles of underbrush left after 
clearing and which soon decay in that climate. 
After nine months or a year the plants begin 
to bear, and each stalk will produce one bunch 
of bananas. The stalk is then cut down and 
a new one, or several, will spring up from the 
roots and will bear in the same length of time. 
Thus a banana plantation that is carefully 
looked after will produce a marketable crop 
each week in the year, so that there is a con- 
stant revenue coming in to the owner. The 
cultivation of this delicious fruit, for which 
there is an ever-increasing market, brings the 
quickest return of any tropical product. 



The Tropics 109 

Sugar cane can be raised profitably as the 
stalks grow high with many joints and have 
a greater percentage of saccharine than in 
most countries where it is cultivated. Further- 
more it does not require replanting so fre- 
quently. Cacao is another truly tropical prod- 
uct. It is from the cacao bean that chocolate is 
made. The trees are usually transplanted and 
bear in about four years and the beans are 
gathered three or four times a year. They 
are then removed from the pods and dried in 
the sun. The trees will bear for many years. 
Orange culture along modern scientific lines, 
such as are used in California and Florida, 
would be profitable, for the crop matures ear- 
lier and could be marketed long before the 
fruit has ripened in those states. The Mexi- 
cans are great rice eaters and there is a good 
field for its culture. The cocoanut palm offers 
good returns as there is a good market for its 
fruit. Rubber grows wild and many planta- 
tions have been set out in rubber trees. In the 
past year Mexico has shipped more than two 
million pounds of crude rubber, and the pro- 
duction is increasing. Vast tracts of mahog- 
any are found down toward Guatemala in the 
states of Campeche and Tabasco. These great 
trees are cut down, hewn square and then 



110 Mexico and Her People To-day 

hauled by mules to a waterway where they are 
formed into rafts and floated down to the 
ports. There is much waste in the present 
crude way of cutting and marketing this val- 
uable wood. Logwood and other dyewoods are 
found in the same forests. The world's supply 
of chicle also comes from the same source. 

What the Mexican tropics need is men of 
energy backed by capital sufficient to utilize 
large tracts of this rich soil. It is true that 
many plantations are now being cultivated a,nd 
it is equally true that many have been aban- 
doned as failures after unsuccessful attempts 
at cultivation. The fault has not been poor 
soil but poor management. Promotion and 
success are not synonymous terms, and much 
of the promotion has been done by unscrupu- 
lous persons whose only purpose was to dis- 
pose of stock to the gullible. Richer soil can- 
not be found anywhere, but it must be culti- 
vated with intelligence and good judgment the 
same as in any other part of the world, or fail- 
ure will result. 



CHAPTER VI 

A GLIMPSE OF THE OEIENTAL IF THE OCCIDENT 

Some two hundred miles south of the City 
of Mexico lies Oaxaca (pronounced Wa- 
ha-ka). The Valley of Oaxaca was looked 
upon by the Spanish conquerors as El Dorado, 
the traditional land of gold. The Aztecs told 
them that the gold of Montezuma came from 
the sands of the rivers in this and the connect- 
ing valleys, and that immeasurable treasure 
was to be found there. Believing these tales, 
Cortez secured large grants of land from the 
crown, and, with the consent and approval of 
his sovereign, assumed to himself the title of 
Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca. 

The cupidity of the Spaniards led them to 
employ every subterfuge to induce the natives 
to reveal the source of their plentiful supply 
of gold. The Indians, after considerable urg- 
ing, — so we are told, — offered to conduct one 
man to this place, if he would submit to be 
blindfolded for the trip. This was agreed to 

111 



112 Mexico and Her People To-day 

and the party set out on their journey. Think- 
ing that he would mark the way, the Spaniard 
dropped a grain of corn every few steps. 
After they had travelled a long distance, the 
Spaniard had the bandage removed from his 
eyes and he was allowed to look around, when 
he beheld such wealth as mortal vision never 
before had seen. His eyes glittered with the 
greed of his covetous nature, but his counte- 
nance soon changed when a dusky warrior 
stepped up and handed him a vessel which 
contained every grain of corn that he had 
dropped by the way. For this reason he was 
never able to retrace his steps to this wonder- 
ful region, and the wily Spaniards were again 
outwitted by the simple natives. 

Oaxaca is reached by the Southern Railway 
which starts at Puebla. This road penetrates 
one of the richest sections of the republic, 
with abundance of timber and minerals, and 
unlimited beds of onyx and marble. Little of 
this wealth is seen from the railroad, as this 
line follows the narrow valleys, through one 
canon into another, furnishing scenery as 
grandly picturesque as the great passes of 
Colorado. The mountains in places are lifted 
up thousands of feet with crags and peaks 
which the storms have cut into fantastic shapes 



A Glimpse of the Oriental 113 



and whose walls drop almost perpendicularly 
to the water's edge. Then again the canon 
widens, and the panorama extends across the 
valley where gigantic rocks, stained in all col- 
ours by the oozings of the metals of the earth, 
form far-away pictures not unlike the battle- 
ments of an ancient fortress. The sun tinges 
each a different hue, with deeper tones in the 
near ones which fade as they approach the 
horizon, until all seem to blend into the intense 
blue of the sky. 

As the train leaves the City of the Angels, 
just at daybreak, a wonderful panorama is 
opened up to view. Look in any direction, and 
the tiled domes of the churches rise above the 
plain, for each village and hacienda has its 
own. The forts erected on the surrounding 
hills which are emblematic of the force that 
subjugated this valley, are seen, and near them 
the pyramid of Cholula erected by those who 
were overcome. Over all tower those mighty 
monuments of nature, the white-capped peaks 
of Popocatapetl, Ixtaccihuatl, Orizaba and old 
Malintzi, with the morning sun reflected on 
their snowy heads. The road ascends and de- 
scends, and then ascends again before it takes 
a dip down into the tierra caliente. A number 
of native villages are passed but only one town 



114 Mexico and Her People To-day 

of any size, Tehuacan, noted for its mineral 
springs. It is a pretty little city, and in the 
centre of a rich agricultural district. The road 
finally enters a wide, open country with rich 
valleys which extend to the hills beyond. At 
last, after a twelve hours' journey, our train 
rolls into this occidental Eden. 

More than three centuries ago a Spanish 
writer described Oaxaca as ^' not very big, yet 
a fair and beautiful city to behold, which stand- 
eth three-score leagues from Mexico in a pleas- 
ant valley." It is located at the junction of 
three valleys and on the bank of a broad river, 
which meanders through a billowy sea of corn- 
fields toward the Pacific. Whichever way the 
eye may turn the view is bounded by hills cov- 
ered with forests. Viewed from one of these 
hills the city looks like a broad, flat-covered 
plain of stone buildings above which are seen 
many domes, and the whole scene has a truly 
oriental touch. 

The people that the Spanish found in posses- 
sion of these valleys were an industrious race. 
They had tilled the soil centuries before the 
Spaniards, in their lust for gold, despoiled 
these beautiful valleys. There is not a hollow, 
or knoll, where it is possible to scrape a little 
soil with a hoe, that has not at some time been 



A Glimpse of the Oriental 115 

cultivated. These early races had even con- 
structed irrigation works which kept green 
their fields during the dry season. The rich 
basins filled with alluvium are now owned by 
the rich hacendados, or landowners, whose 
white buildings dot the landscape here and 
there and, with their trees, orchards and cul- 
tivated fields, lend life and colour to an other- 
wise dull prospect. The poor Indians are 
forced to work for these landlords who claim 
title to the land formerly owned by their an- 
cestors, or retire to the hills where, well up 
toward the crests, they cultivate their little 
fields of corn and beans. There is one tribe 
of Indians that dwell in the mountains of 
Oaxaca who have never acknowledged either 
Spanish or Mexican sovereignty, and maintain 
their own tribal form of government. They 
can be seen at Oaxaca on market days. 

We find Oaxaca to be a city of about thirty- 
three thousand people of whom three-fourths 
or more are Indians. It is laid out with nar- 
row streets, down the centre of which runs a 
stream of water, from which rise at times 
odours not the most agreeable. The houses 
are low and one-storied, with grated windows 
after the style of architecture introduced by 
the Spaniards, and by them adopted from the 



116 Mexico and Her People To-day 

Moors, who copied it from the Persians, The 
water supply is abundant, being brought in 
from the hills by an aqueduct. Fountains are 
located at numerous places, and a constant suc- 
cession of Rebeccas with heads enveloped in 
their shawls, and carrying great earthen water- 
jars pass to and fro from them. 

Oaxaca contains many fine churches of which 
one, Santo Domingo, has been both monastery 
and fortress, and has just been restored at a 
cost of $13,000,000 (silver) so it is claimed, 
making it the most costly church in Mexico, 
if not in North America. The gold on the 
walls was so heavy in former times, that the 
soldiers quartered here during revolutionary 
uprisings employed themselves in removing it. 
This city has been the scene of troublous times, 
and has been captured and re-captured by the 
combating forces. It has given to the country 
two great presidents, Juarez and Diaz, of 
whom it may well be proud. Of these two 
men, great in the annals of Mexico, the former 
was a full-blooded Indian, and the latter has 
a fair percentage of the same blood in his 
veins. A monument to Juarez has been erected, 
and some day — may it be far distant — when 
nature has claimed her own, this city will raise 
a memorial to her still greater son. 




A FOUNTAIN IN OAXACA 



A Glimpse of the Oriental 117 

Oaxaca has a pleasant plaza, called the Plaza 
de Armas, adorned with various semi-tropical 
trees and shrubs, in the centre of which is the 
ever-present band-stand. The Cathedral and 
municipal palace face this square. My visit 
here was during a fiesta and this plaza was the 
favourite resort of the Indians as well as my- 
self. The Indians living in the hills took undis- 
turbed possession at night, and groups of tired 
Indios wrapped themselves in their sarapes, 
or shawls, and stretched their tired limbs out 
on the cold stones; or propped themselves 
against the walls of a building to rest. A num- 
ber of catch-penny devices were running dur- 
ing the evening and the favourite seemed to be 
the phonograph. The Indian would pay his 
centavo, put the transmitter in his ears and 
listen without a sign of expression on his stolid 
face. Nevertheless, he enjoyed it, because he 
would repeat the operation until his stock of 
coppers was considerably diminished. 

Saturday is market day in this city, and a 
visit to this popular place is worth a trip to 
Mexico. The atmosphere of the market is 
truly oriental, for these people have a genius 
for trading as the innumerable little stands 
where crude pottery, rough-made baskets, 
homemade dulces, etc., are sold, fully proves. 



118 Mexico and Her People To-day 

The entrance takes one past the dealers in 
fried meats, where bits of pork and shreds of 
beef are dished out sizzling hot to the peons 
under the big sombreros by women cooks who 
crouch over earthenware dishes placed on 
small braziers containing a charcoal fire, and 
a three course meal can be obtained for a few 
cents. There is always a crowd around this 
department, for these people are ever ready 
to eat, and their capacity is only limited by 
their purse. 

Next is encountered the fruit and vegetable 
stands. The finest fruits and vegetables, and 
especially the latter, that I saw in Mexico, were 
right here in this market and this was in the 
month of December. Generally the vegetables 
in Mexico are not large, but here were fine 
potatoes, great red tomatoes, gigantic radishes 
and elephantine cabbages. Oranges, bananas, 
limes, plantains and pineapples were plentiful, 
as well as the less-known fruits such as zapotes 
(a kind of melon), aguacates (a pale green 
fruit and vegetable combined), granaditas, 
mangoes, granadas and pomegranates. The 
cocoanut of the hotlands is mingled with the 
dunas, the fruit of the prickly pear, of the 
higher lands. With these a great many drinks 
called frescas, or sherbets, are flavoured, the 




THK POTTERY- MARKET, OAXACA 



A Glimpse of the Oriental 119 

merits of which are announced by the dark- 
eyed, be-shawled vendors. The women mer- 
chants, many of them smoking cigarettes, sit 
around on the floor so thick in places that it 
is almost impossible to work your way through 
the mixed assortment of peppers and babies; 
corn, lean babies and peas ; charcoal, beans 
and fat babies; naked babies, knives and 
murderous-looking machetes; hats, laughing 
babies, shawls and other useful articles; tur- 
keys, crying babies, chickens, dirty babies, 
ducks, squawking parrots in cages, pigs and 
other live stock, including babies of all kinds 
and descriptions. 

The pottery market presided over by the 
solemn-faced, oriental merchants is a never- 
ending place . of interest, and these artistic 
vessels are carried over the mountains on the 
backs of the Indians. Crude baskets and mats 
made of the palm fibre are found in abundance 
as well as brooms which bear no union label. 

No one could afford to miss the flbwer de- 
partment where flowers are so cheap that it 
seems almost a sin not to buy them. Here are 
velvety sweet peas, purple pansies, tangled 
heaps of crimson and white roses, azure forget- 
me-nots, pyramids of heliotrope and scarlet 
geraniums. For a few cents one can buy al- 



120 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
most a bushel of these, or, if preferred, can 
substitute marguerites, carnations, poppies, or 
violets. An American will probably have to 
pay twice as much as a native, even after the 
shrewdest bargaining. 

Outside the market enclosure caravans of 
over-loaded donkeys jostle each other as a 
great solid-wheeled cart yoked to a couple of 
meek-eyed oxen creaks by, or a tram car drawn 
by galloping mules thunders noisily along to an 
accompaniment of loud cracks of the whip, 
and a constant repetition of '' mulas " and 
" arres " the " rrs " being brought out with 
a long trill. 

The Indian will travel for days on his way 
to market at Oaxaca. On the day before 
market I drove out the south road for a num- 
ber of miles, and the entire distance was lit- 
erally black, — or perhaps it would be better 
to say brown, — with the natives coming to 
town bearing the " brown man's burden," and 
travelling along in the middle of the road at 
a rapid pace. These Indians were coming 
from the " hot country " farther south and 
were bringing oranges, bananas, cocoanuts and 
other kinds of tropical fruits, besides chickens, 
eggs and other poultry. Most of them were 
on foot, though the more fortunate had don- 



A Glimpse of the Oriental 121 

keys to carry the load; but they themselves 
walked and drove the animal. The women bore 
large baskets on their heads, which they bal- 
anced gracefully, although sometimes the loads 
are exceedingly heavy. They will carry one 
hundred pounds or more in this manner. Fre- 
quently a baby is swung across the back as an 
additional burden. The little mites are good 
natured in this uncomfortable position, and do 
not make half as much trouble as American 
babies in their rubber-tired, easy-springed per- 
ambulators. 

A small pot, a basket of tortillas, a few fag- 
ots and plenty of coffee complete the outfit of 
the man. Perhaps the value of his load is not 
over a dollar or two in gold, but his entertain- 
ment along the way costs little, for he sleeps 
out of doors, carries his food, makes his own 
coffee and needs to buy nothing except perhaps 
a little fruit and aguardiente (brandy). The 
entire family sometimes accompany him, for 
the wife is afraid to have her man go away 
alone for fear he may desert her. 

On the opposite side of the city from the 
road just described is another main highway. 
I stood here for several hours by the river 
bank on the afternoon of a market-day, when 
the people were leaving for home. The sight 



122 Mexico and Her People To-day 

never grew tiresome or monotonous, as there 
was a constant succession of pictures, which a 
moving-picture machine alone could adequately 
portray. Although there is a bridge across the 
stream, no one used it, for by making a short 
cut across the river bed a hundred yards or 
more was saved. The pedestrian would re^ 
move his sandals to wade through the shallow 
water, and then replace them on reaching the 
opposite bank. The Indians going this way 
had more burros, and, as their load was dis- 
posed of, the family rode. Frequently a poor, 
diminutive burro carried as many persons as 
could sit on his back, in addition to the large 
baskets. Many of the great carts drawn by 
one or two yoke of oxen passed this way. The 
cattle are all yoked by the horns, which seems 
a cruel way, for their heads are brought down 
almost to the ground, and it looks as though 
every jar must cause them suffering. 

So this unique panorama continued all the 
afternoon. I could not think of anything but 
Palestine, as I gazed at this unceasing proces- 
sion of donkeys, Egyptian carts, women with 
their shawls folded and worn on their heads in 
Eastern fashion; and in the background the 
white walls, red tiled "roofs and domes of the 
churches of Oaxaca. For a moment I won- 



A Glimpse of the Oriental 123 



dered if I were not mistaken, and had suddenly 
strayed into some corner of the Orient, and 
found myself involuntarily looking for the 
mosque, and listening for the cry of the muez- 
zin calling the faithful to prayer. 

A trip around about the valley near Oaxaca 
only served to strengthen the oriental cast of 
the picture. The types of buildings, and the 
signs of water and fertility in the midst of 
widespread aridity (for this was the dry sea- 
son) are eastern. I saw many flocks of goats 
herded by the solitary shepherd in the truly 
old-fashioned way. Then, a slow-moving team 
of oxen followed by a peon guiding a one- 
handled, wooden plough deepens the picture. 
How powerful must have been the Moorish 
influence in Spain, for this is the plough of 
Egypt and Chaldea which was carried along 
the coast of Barbary into Spain, and left there 
as a heritage to the Spaniards who introduced 
it into the new world. 

Yes, Oaxaca is an El Dorado, a land of treas- 
ure to the searcher after the picturesque. The 
real wealth lies in its delightful climate. The 
temperature is mild and does not vary more 
than twenty or thirty degrees during the year. 
The altitude is a little less than five thousand 
feet and the air is fresh and bracing. There is 



124 Mexico and Her People To-day 



also an abundance of good, pure water. Some 
day this city will be known as a health resort 
for people from cold climates. They will find 
relief from the strenuous life in quiet, restful, 
oriental Oaxaca. 

There is no more picturesque hacienda in 
all Mexico than that of Mitla a few miles away. 
Because of the bleak and rough nature of the 
country it has retained its early characteris- 
tics. The little store is a revelation of the 
simple and primitive life of these people. 
Evening is sure to find Don Felix, or his black- 
eyed son, behind the counter waiting on the 
groups of Indians who are constantly coming 
in to buy a couple of cents worth of mescal, 
or tequila, or cigarettes. One Indian woman 
came in to purchase a centavo (one-half cent) 
of vinegar, another of lard, and others an equal 
amount of honey, soap, sugar or matches. 
They would invariably buy only one article at 
a time, then pay for it and watch the copper 
disappear down a slot in the counter. Outside 
the door was an old Indian who had brought 
a load of wood down from the mountain, and 
the good housewives were noisily bargaining 
with him for a centavo 's worth of wood, and 
trying to get an extra stick or two for that 
sum. 



A G-limpse of the Oriental 125 

Bargaining is a part of the education of 
these people. A young Indian came in hatless 
and wanted a sombrero (hat). He was shown 
one with thirty cents worth of brim by the 
merchant. The Indian offered twenty-eight 
cents which was accepted and he went away 
happy over his bargain. An old Indian, — and 
an old Indian is but a child in worldly wisdom, 
— brought a large cassava root, which, after 
considerable haggling, the merchant purchased 
for five cents. He bought a package of sixteen 
cigarettes for three cents and told the young 
hacendado that he had another '^ mas grande " 
(larger), which he would sell for seven cents. 
He went away but returned in a few minutes 
with the other root, and looked around at the 
crowd with a grin. The merchant took it but 
told him it was '' mas chico " (smaller), and 
he could only allow four cents. The Indian 
came down to six and the deal was closed at 
five cents, the same price as the first one was 
sold for. He bought a glass of mescal for two 
cents and vanished in the night air, with a 
smile of complete satisfaction on his face. It 
is a simple life that these people lead, and the 
same scenes may be witnessed any day in the 
year at this little tienda at the Hacienda of 
Mitla. 



126 Mexico and Her People To-day 

" When twilight falls, more near and clear, 
The tender southern skies appear." 

Twilight is very brief in this land. Scarcely 
has the sun dropped out of sight, when the 
moon appears on the opposite horizon, almost 
a counterpart of the former in its descending 
glory. Then the stars appear by hundreds, 
and myriads, and the night in all its magnifi- 
cence is upon you, where, but a few minutes 
before, was the brightness of day. And the 
overhanging canopy of the heavens seems so 
much brighter, and clearer, and nearer than in 
our more northerly land. 

As the hour grew late, I wandered forth 
from the little store and walked through the 
narrow, winding streets of the village. It was 
one of those brilliant tropical nights when the 
southern skies seemed ablaze with the light of 
innumerable stars, and the Queen of the Night 
was in her glory. It was such a night as would 
have appealed to the astronomers of old. The 
streets were silent except for the howling of 
some dogs near by. The porch of the hacienda 
was crowded with reclining figures wrapped in 
their sarapes. A belated traveller came up 
and with a sigh of relief deposited his load, 
and joined the sleeping crowd. A match il- 
lumed a dark face for a moment as he lit a 



A Glimpse of the Oriental 127 

cigarette. Finally, all voices ceased and quiet 
reigned supreme. It was a silence as deep and 
mysterious as that of the ruined city that lay 
but a few rods away. 



CHAPTER Vn 

THE ISTHMUS OF TEHTJANTEPBO 

A TRIP from Vera Cruz to the Isthmus of 
Tehuantepec takes the traveller into the very 
centre of the tropics in Mexico. It is a most 
interesting ride. The entire journey is within 
the tier r a caliente region and throughout the 
whole distance of two hundred and fifty miles 
there are only slight undulations that could 
hardly be truthfully called hills. It is not all 
jungle for there are plains that are sometimes 
several miles in width which furnish rich pas- 
ture for great herds of cattle. Here again is 
seen the picturesque Mexican cowboy riding 
his pony and carrying the ever-present lasso. 
The heavy saddles in this hot climate and espe- 
cially the twisted bits which are universally 
used upon the horses in Mexico seem like a 
cruel imposition upon their faithful steeds. 
With this combination of rings and bars a 
rider could almost break the jaw of a horse. 

128 



The Isthmus of Tehuantepec 129 



It is absolutely impossible for an animal to 
drink with this bit in his mouth. 

This leads me to remark that the finer sen- 
sibilities with regard to the treatment of do- 
mesticated animals and fowls are generally 
absent among Mexicans. The poor burros 
which are obliged to travel day after day with 
great sores on their backs that are continually 
chafed by the loads they are carrying, and sad- 
dle mules with similar sores, excite no com- 
passion from the average Mexican. No doubt 
many of these animals are obliged to work for 
months and possibly years, when every step 
under a load or the weight of a man must cause 
them suffering. They are seldom shod, and 
many an animal is obliged to travel over the 
rough trails until his hoofs are worn down to 
the sensitive part. Cruel spurs are jabbed 
into his sides until they are raw. I have al- 
ready spoken of the bull-fight and cock-fight- 
ing. From a book " On the Mexican High- 
lands ' ' I quote another form of cruelty : — 
*' The stocky, swarthy Indian woman calmly 
broke the thigh bone of each leg and the chief 
bone of each wing, so that escape might be 
impossible, and proceeded right then and there 
to pick the chicken alive. She was evidently 
unconscious of any thought of cruelty. The 



130 Mexico and Her People To-day 

legs and wings were broken in order that the 
bird might not run or fly away. The sentiment 
of pity and tenderness for dmnb things had 
not yet dawned upon her mind, and the fowl 
destined for the pot received no consideration 
at her hands." 

There are many villages along this route 
but no cities. Several broad rivers and innu- 
merable small streams are crossed. The en- 
gines burn wood, and it is necessary to stop 
on several occasions and load up the tender 
with fuel. At Tierra Blanca are located the 
shops and division headquarters of the road. 
As the Isthmus is approached the tropical 
swamps become more frequent and the train 
passes through miles of territory where '' still 
stands the forest primeval," a jungle of trees 
and shrubs intermingled with countless varie- 
ties of palms ; impenetrable forests with creep- 
ers and parasites hanging from the boughs of 
trees, and replanting themselves in the moist 
earth. Within these jungles the '^ tigre " 
roams and beneath the heavy undergrowth, 
horrid, venomous snakes crawl. Overhead fly 
noisy parrots and paroquets in couples and 
flocks with all of the colours of the rainbow 
reflected from their gaudy feathers. Then in 



The Isthmus of Tehuantepec 131 

■ 

the waters of these streams live hundreds of 

repulsive alligators. 

At certain seasons of the year the Indians 
live almost entirely upon the wild products of 
the forest. Nature furnishes fruits, and with 
the blow-gun or other weapon enough game 
can be killed to fill the larder. With a natural 
laziness and in an enervating climate the na- 
tives prefer existence of this kind to the more 
artificial one made necessary by labour. 

The Vera Cruz and Pacific Railway connects 
with the Tehuantepec railway at Santa Lucre- 
cia, a small village with a poor hotel. Here 
it was my lot to be obliged to spend Christmas 
Eve and the greater part of Christmas day. 
My companions were an Englishman and 
a Scotchman. The Englishman rummaged 
around in the little store and found a canned 
plum pudding, which rather cheered him and 
his compatriot and I was invited to share in 
their good fortune. However the heavens 
seemed to open up and let the water pour down 
in torrents and the mud was apparently bot- 
tomless so that our explorations were confined 
to the hotel porch. In spite of the plum pud- 
ding my spirits were rather low and I was 
reminded of Touchstone wandering in the 
Forest of Arden, when he says : — 



132 Mexico and Her People To-day 

" When I was at home I was in a better place, 
But travellers must be content." 

It was a real pleasure to step into a fine 
American coach drawn by an American engine 
and run by an American crew bound for the 
chief town of the Isthmus and the one that 
gave it its name. 

Tehuantepec is a place where some twenty 
thousand souls are trying to solve the problem 
of existence under favourable skies. In this 
city of a hot midday sun and little rain the 
strenuous life has few disciples. It is situated 
on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera on both 
banks of a broad river and only a few miles 
from the ocean. It is composed of low, one- 
storied buildings, many of which show cracks 
that are the result of the earthquake shocks 
which sometimes visit here. The streets are 
narrow and the centre of the town is the mar- 
ket plaza. Until the opening of the railroad, 
which runs through the centre of the town, 
strangers were almdst unknown and the quaint 
customs, costumes and habits still remain. 
The market and the river furnish the only life. 
The latter is always made lively and interest- 
ing to the stranger because of the crowds of 
bathers in the stream and washerwomen on the 
banks. It is an animated scene and has an air 



The Isthmus of Tehuantepec 133 

of naturalness devoid of any false ideas of 
modesty. These Indians belong to the Zapotec 
tribe and they are among the cleanest people in 
the world, as a race, as the long lines of bathers 
of both sexes from early dawn until nightfall 
attest. Woman's rights are recognized and 
undisputed among these people. The women 
run the place and do ninety per cent, of the 
business. The wife must vouch for the hus- 
band before he can obtain credit. In the mar- 
ket place where most of the bartering is done 
she reigns supreme. 

The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is the narrow- 
est neck of land in Mexico between the two 
great oceans and, with the exception of the 
Isthmus of Panama, is the narrowest point on 
the continent. The soil is extremely rich and 
the natural products and resources of the Isth- 
mus are numerous and varied. All products 
indigenous to the tropics grow here. Different 
sections, according to elevation, are especially 
adapted to the cultivation of corn, cacao, to- 
bacco, rice and sugar cane. Medicinal plants, 
spices, all tropical fruits, vanilla, indigo and 
cotton also will grow profitably in this climate. 
Cochineal dye has for a long time come from 
the Tehuantepec region, but this industry has 



134 Mexico and Her People To-day 

s . 

been displaced by the more recent chemical 
dyes. 

The forests abound in game and the rivers 
and lagoons in fish. The forests yield useful 
timbers, such as mahogany, also dyewoods and 
trees producing gums and balsams. Oil in 
paying quantities has been discovered in sev- 
eral places and the Tehuantepec National 
Railway, which crosses the isthmus, is one of 
the few roads in the world that uses oil for 
fuel. There are also profitable salt deposits. 
A great deal of American and European cap- 
ital has been sunk in unsuccessful plantations 
along this route. This has been due to illogical 
and dishonest promotion. The fertile soil will 
produce immense crops of the things adapted 
for cultivation. With this fact in view it seems 
strange to see one abandoned plantation after 
another as you journey over the two hundred 
miles separating Coatzacoalcos and Salina 
Cruz, the two termini of the Isthmus of Te- 
huantepec trans-continental and inter-oceanic 
railroad route. In the matter of climate the 
Mexicans claim a great superiority for Te- 
huantepec over Panama, because of the strong 
winds that blow constantly from ocean to 
ocean. 

For centuries this isthmus has attracted a 



The Isthmus of Tehuantepec 135 

great deal of attention from explorers and 
engineers in the effort to discover or provide 
the most convenient and economical route be- 
tween the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Cortez 
first realized the necessity of such a route and 
explored this whole section in the hope of find- 
ing a natural strait. It is even claimed that 
he conceived the idea of a canal across this 
narrow strip of land. Failing in these proj- 
ects he planned a carriage road from coast 
to coast, which was finally constructed by the 
Spaniards. Many of the miners who flocked 
to California during the gold excitement went 
by this highway. Later civil engineers pro- 
posed and advocated a canal by this route even 
before the Panama route was seriously con- 
sidered. The distance from ocean to ocean is 
only one hundred and twenty-five miles in a 
bee line. The land is comparatively level and 
the rise on the Atlantic side is very gradual 
culminating in the Chivela Pass at a height 
of seven hundred and thirty feet. From here 
to the Pacific the descent is more abrupt. A 
ship railway was at one time seriously consid- 
ered and liberal concessions were granted by 
the Mexican government to the American engi- 
neer James B. Eads and his associates. This 
project although considered feasible by engi • 



136 Mexico and Her People To-day 

neers has never been able to enlist capital for 
its construction. 

The Panama Canal under French control 
was a colossal failure. A project which for a 
time seemed to promise a solution of the prob- 
lem for a quick and economical route between 
the East and West ended in lamentable dis- 
grace and for a long time remained in what one 
of our former presidents would have called, 
a condition of " innocuous desuetude." When 
the United States undertook this great enter- 
prise, the completion of this desirable water- 
way was placed at ten years or even less. Now 
at the end of four years we are credibly in- 
formed that little has been done except the 
completion of plans, surveys, purchase of ma- 
chinery and necessary sanitation. All of these 
preliminaries were essential and will greatly 
facilitate the real work when once started. 
All loyal Americans believe in the ultimate 
successful completion of this great undertak- 
ing. Yet, instead of ten years, we can see that 
fifteen years, or even twenty years would be 
a more accurate statement of the time neces- 
sary to complete the severing of the two con- 
tinents. In the meantime, what? 

While other countries have been planning, 
the Mexican government with the characteris- 



The Isthmus of Tehuantepec 137 

tic foresight shown by President Diaz has 
been quietly preparing to meet the problem of 
a short and economical route between the two 
oceans. This has been done without the blow- 
ing of horns and few people were aware until 
recently of what was being done and what had 
really been accomplished. The government of 
Mexico decided upon the plan of constructing 
a railway across the Isthmus from Coatzacoal- 
cos, on the Gulf of Mexico, to Salina Cruz, on 
the Pacific Ocean, a distance of one hundred 
and ninety-four miles. Most railroads in trop- 
ical lands are narrow gauge but this line is 
constructed of standard width and was com- 
pleted in 1895. When first opened to traffic 
the road was in a very imperfect condition. 
In 1899 a contract was entered into between the 
government and the English house of Pearson 
and Sons whereby the two parties became joint 
owners of the road for a period of fifty years 
and the net earnings should be shared on an 
equitable basis. 

The construction was of a difficult character 
because the route passed through some can- 
ons, rocky cuts and a great deal of swampy 
soil. The work has been well done and it is 
one of the best roads in Mexico to-day, with 
good equipment and traffic managed in an up- 



138 Mexico and Her People To-day 

to-date and businesslike manner. Already 
large orders for equipment liave been placed 
and plans for double-tracking the entire road 
have been drawn. The headquarters and gen- 
eral offices are at Eincon Antonio, which is at 
the highest point and has the appearance of a 
tj^ical new English town with its red brick 
terraces. This town receives the full benefit 
of the winds constantly blowing across the 
isthmus and enjoys a pleasant and salubrious 
climate. The shops and roundhouse for the 
railroad have been built at this place also and 
the employees are all comfortably housed. 
Some of the officers have built very commo- 
dious homes of their own, with every possible 
convenience. This town is in marked contrast 
with the old Mexican towns and villages along 
the route. 

The general officers of the road and head 
men in the port works at both termini are all 
English and Americans. Formerly they were 
English, but in recent years the Americans 
have been replacing the English, as they have 
been found more satisfactory and better 
adapted for the work. 

The government soon learned that the rail- 
way without good harbours was a poor prop- 
osition. The plans of the government were 



The Isthmus of Tehuantepec 139 

then made to include immense port works and 
safe, co m modious harbours at Coatzacoalcos 
and Salina Cruz. At the former place the 
river forms a natural harbour of an average 
depth of fifty feet at low water. The only- 
problem here was to remove a sand bar and 
construct piers. The work of removing the 
bar has been completed and several large steel 
wharves and warehouses have already been 
constructed and others are in course of con- 
struction. The total frontage of the wharves 
when completed will be over three thousand 
feet. It is intended to have a minimum depth 
of thirty-three feet alongside of the wharves 
which will be equipped with every modern con- 
trivance for unloading cargo quickly and eco- 
nomically from ships, and transferring to the 
railroad and vice versa. 

The work at Salina Cruz presented far 
greater problems. It has demanded the max- 
imum of engineering skill and an immense sum 
of money. Here nature had aided in no way 
and everything had to be done by human effort. 
On account of severe wind storms it was 
deemed necessary to construct both an outer 
and an inner harbour in order to make a per- 
fectly safe anchorage at all times and the work 
was begun in 1900. The outer harbour is being 



140 Mexico and Her People To-day 

formed by thrusting two massive breakwaters 
like immense arms out into the bay with an 
entrance six hundred feet wide. The longest 
of these breakwaters will be three thousand 
feet, consisting of three sections, of different 
angles, with the convex sides toward the sea. 
The other is only one-half as extensive. The 
foundation for these breakwaters is started 
thirty feet below low water mark and in some 
places is two hundred feet in width. Upon a 
rubble foundation immense blocks of concrete 
and natural rock are placed at random. Then 
on top are placed regular rows of forty-ton 
concrete blocks. The amount of material al- 
ready used and needed to complete this work 
is almost inconceivable. More than three- 
fourths of the largest breakwater is already 
completed. The inner basin will be wholly 
artificial and will occupy in part the site of 
the old town of Salina Cruz with an entrance 
ninety feet wide. Immense dredges are now 
at work on this basin which will be large 
enough to accommodate whole fleets of the 
largest vessels afloat. From two thousand to 
four thousand men have been and are still 
employed, the majority being natives. 

Although the harbour at Salina Cruz is still 
incomplete, this route was formally opened on 



The Isthmus of Tehuantepec 141 

January 23rd, 1907. In the presence of a great 
throng of notables, including the representa- 
tives of twenty nations. President Diaz touched 
a lever which set in motion a steam winch that 
was used to carry the first load of cargo from 
a steamer to a freight car. After this car had 
been loaded it was transferred to Coatzacoal- 
cos and the President touched another lever 
that set in motion the machinery for unloading 
the car and transferring the freight to a wait- 
ing steamer. In this manner was opened a 
route that is destined to take a prominent part 
in the handling of the world's commerce, and 
which has cost the Mexican government more 
than $25,000,000 in gold, and the end is not 
yet. After four hundred years the dream of 
Cortez has come true and the isthmian high- 
way is open to the world. 

What advantages are claimed for this route? 
The benefit to Mexico is self-evident. It will 
greatly facilitate the commerce between the 
two long coast lines of the republic. This 
great undertaking was not begun for the na- 
tional trade alone. It is intended to compete 
for all that traffic which has heretofore gone 
around Cape Horn, through the Straits of Ma- 
gellan, or across the Panama railroad. The 
Tehuantepec route is one thousand, two hun- 



142 Mexico and Her People To-day 

dred and fifty miles shorter between New York 
and San Francisco than the Panama route. 
The average freight steamer would require 
from four to five days to cover this distance. 
The managers of the Tehuantepec National 
railroad propose to unload a cargo, carry it 
across the isthmus and reload it in two days. 
It will probably require one day for a vessel 
to pass through the Panama canal. This would 
make a net saving of from three to four days 
for the Tehuantepec route. The extra cost of 
loading and unloading would be made up by 
the saving of canal dues and expenses of the 
ship for that period. Thus there will be a net 
saving of three to four days in shipment, which 
might be quite a feature with many classes of 
freight. In cheapness of transportation, the 
continental railroads of the United States 
could not compete. Already contracts have 
been made with a line of steamers which have 
heretofore run between San Francisco, Hawaii 
and New York via Cape Horn to transfer their 
freight by this route. The government claims 
to have more freight in sight for 1907 than the 
Panama railroad has ever carried in a single 
year. 

This route has been lost sight of in the en- 
thusiasm over the Panama canal. It will be 



The Isthmus of Tehuantepec 143 

completed several years before the canal. 

Note to Second Revised Edition. The success of the Te- 
huantepec National Railroad greatly exceeded expectations, 
and it was found necessary to double track the entire length 
of the road. The improvements at Salina Cruz and Coatza- 
coaloos (now officially called Puerto Mexico) have been com- 
pleted and found to equal expectations. Both cities were made 
ports of call for all lines of steamers passing near. Even with 
the completion of the great Panama Canal, of which all Ameri- 
cans are so proud, there will still be a wide field of usefulness 
for the great interoceanic railroad in the commerce of the 
world. 



CHAPTEE VIII 

IN THE FOOTSTEPS OP THE ANCIENTS 

" Builded on the ruins of dead thrones 
Whose temple walls were old when Thebes was new ; 
On altars whose weird sacrificial stones 
With ghastly offerings were crimsoned through ; 
Oblivion hides and holds thy secrets fast — 
The dust of ages lies upon thy past, 

All wonderful, mysterious Mexico." * 

Mexico is a land of ruins and the footprints 
of former races can be traced all over the 
southern half of the country. These ruins 
teach us that it must have taken many cen- 
turies to develop the land into the condition in 
which it was found by the Spaniards. It was 
not only the growth of a long time, but it was 
the product of the civilization developed by 
many different races and tribes. Otherwise 
Mexico would not be filled to-day with a hun- 
dred tribes speaking as many distinct dialects. 
There are many ruins of cities extending from 
the Valley of Mexico to the remotest corner 

* " Wonderful, Mysterious Mexico, " by Madge Morris. 
144 



In the Footsteps of the Ancients 145 

of Yucatan, and many of them show evidences 
of wonderful structures that are the amaze- 
ment of even the present generation. Not 
buried beneath volcanic lava, like Pompeii and 
Herculaneum, yet all are silent cities, for their 
inhabitants departed hundreds, perhaps, thou- 
sands of years ago. A few broken columns 
now remain where doubtless whole cities once 
stood. 

Nothing is known of the history of these 
cities. The Spanish priests, with fanatical 
frenzy, destroyed all of the picture writings 
of the Aztecs that they could lay their hands 
upon. So many were destroyed, some chron- 
iclers say, that great bonfires were made. 
What light these manuscripts might have cast 
upon the history of these early races cannot 
even be conjectured. As Prescott says, "it is 
impossible to contemplate these mysterious 
monuments of a lost civilization without a 
strong feeling of curiosity as to who were their 
architects and what is their probable age." 
They are undoubtedly very old, and some claim 
they are as old as the architecture of Egypt 
and Hindoostan. They have marked Eastern 
characteristics, as in the hieroglyphical writ- 
ings at Palenque, in Yucatan, where are ruins 
of a palace and supposed holy city, with many 



146 Mexico and Her People To-day 

sculptured figures of human and animal beings. 
The same is true of Uxmal, also in that same 
quaint and interesting corner of Mexico. These 
writings never have been and probably never 
will be deciphered. Then at Palenque can be 
traced the outline of the Eoman cross which 
has greatly mystified antiquarians. We can 
only speculate on the origin of these monu- 
ments; whence came the people who con- 
structed them; and in what period of the 
earth's history they were built; but specula- 
tion proves nothing and convinces nobody. 

East of the City of Mexico about twenty- 
seven miles lies the village of San Juan Teo- 
tihuacan. Near this hamlet are traces of a 
great city covering more than four square 
miles, and remains of walls and fortifications, 
a part of the wall that still stands being more 
than two hundred feet thick and thirty-two 
feet high. The most marked features of these 
ruins are the numerous pyramids, great and 
small, which lie scattered over the plain. Teo- 
tihuacan means ^' City of the Gods," and 
doubtless Ithese pyramidal structures were a 
necessary part of a holy city in the eyes of the 
race that constructed them, and were mounds 
of worship. Otherwise why would a race build 



In the Footsteps of the Ancients 147 



such great structures at such an infinite cost 
of labour? 

The largest of these numerous pyramids is 
called the " Pyramid of the Sun," which has 
a base seven hundred feet square, and a 
height of one hundred and eight-seven feet. 
The next largest is the '' Pyramid of the 
Moon," which is one hundred and thirty-seven 
feet high, and has a base four hundred and 
fifty feet square. At a distance the pyramids 
seem rather insignificant, and their outlines 
resemble an ordinary steep-sided hill, but on 
nearer approach they are better appreciated. 
The comparison with the noted pyramids of 
Egypt would, at first glance, seem unfavour- 
able, for the vegetation and vines that cover 
the sides rather hide the pyramidal outline. 
They were probably higher originally, but the 
destructive work of man and action of the ele- 
ments have reduced the size. Recent investi- 
gation shows that these pyramids are built in 
layers of volcanic rock, cement, pottery and 
sun-dried brick. There are five layers — each 
layer being a complete pyramid in itself. 

It is supposed that on the summit of each 
pyramid was a platform which supported great 
golden images of the sun and moon respect- 
ively, but no vestige of any such image has 



148 Mexico and Her People To-day 

ever been discovered. If made of gold, and 
the Spaniards set their eyes on it, it would not 
have remained long. Authorities differ as to 
whether the Toltecs, or a race that preceded 
them, erected these mighty structures. The 
Mexican government has undertaken the work 
of restoring the two pyramids, and has appro- 
priated a large sum of money to carry on the 
work. Several hundred labourers are now en- 
gaged in denuding them of the soil and growth 
of centuries that covers them. 

Near Puebla, and situated in a rich and 
beautiful valley, of which mention has been 
made elsewhere, is the most noted pyramid in 
Mexico — that of Cholula. Legend says that 
it was built by a race of giants who intended 
to raise it to the very heavens themselves, but 
that the gods became displeased and destroyed 
them. It is very similar in nature to the He- 
brew story of the Tower of Babel. Because 
of its great base, which is more than a thou- 
sand feet on each side, and covers twenty acres, 
and has a height of only one hundred and sev- 
enty-seven feet, it looks like a natural eleva- 
tion that has been squared in places and lev- 
elled at the top rather than a pyramid. Like 
the other pyramids the sides are overgrown 
with trees and bushes. Examination shows 



In the Footsteps of the Ancients 149 

that it has been constructed of sun-dried brick, 
clay and limestone. I quote the dimensions of 
two of the most famous Egyptian pyramids in 
order that the reader may better understand 
the comparative height and base of those and 
the Mexican structures: 





HEIGHT. 


BASE ON EACH SIDE 


Cheops, 


448 feet 


728 feet 


Mycerinus, 


162 " 


580 " 


Cholula, 


177 « 


1,000 « 


Sun 


187 « 


700 « 


Moon 


137 " 


450 « 



This valley was sacred in early times. Cor- 
tez says he counted four hundred towers in 
the city of Cholula (a much larger city then 
than now), and no temple had more than two 
towers. Above the city loomed the great pyra- 
mid, on the" summit of which stood a sumptu- 
ous temple in which was the image of the 
mystic deity, Quetzalcoatl. He had '' ebon 
features, wearing a mitre on his head waving 
with plumes of fire, with a resplendent collar 
of gold around his neck, pendants of mosaic 
turquoise on his ears, a jewelled sceptre in one 
hand, and a shield curiously painted, the em- 
blem of his rule over the winds, in the other." 
This was the god who drew pilgrims and de- 



150 Mexico and Her People To-day 

votees by the thousands from the farthest cor- 
ners of Anahuac. 

This god was credited with power over rains, 
and was appealed to especially in time of 
drouth. Bandelier, who made an exhaustive 
study of this district, translates an early Span- 
ish writer as follows: '' To this god they 
prayed whenever they lacked water, and sac- 
rificed to it children from six to ten years of 
age, whom they captured or bought for the 
purpose. When they sacrificed, they carried 
the children up the hill in procession, whither 
went some old men singing, and before the idol 
they cut the child open with a knife, taking 
out the heart, and they burnt incense to the 
idol and afterwards buried the baby there be- 
fore the idol." Thus it is seen that the Na- 
huatl tribe, who occupied this valley, pursued 
the same bloody rites as the Aztecs. 

The first act of Cortez was to destroy this 
temple and erect a Christian church on the 
spot, so that spires and crosses have replaced 
the pagan towers. All over the valley are 
many great churches so conspicuous in com- 
parison with the humble homes of the natives. 
The view from the summit of this ancient 
structure is grand and imposing, John L. 
Stoddard is inspired by this scene and speaks 



In the Footsteps of the Ancients 151 



as follows : ' ' Whatever else of Mexico may be 
forgotten, I shall remember to my latest breath 
that wonderfully impressive vision from Cho- 
lula. Before me rose, against the darkening 
sky, a mighty cross, the sculptured proof that 
here Christianity had proved victorious; and 
as I lingered, my feet upon the Aztec pyra- 
mid, my hand upon the symbol of the conquer- 
or's faith, my eyes turned towards that ever- 
lasting pinnacle of snow, I thought the lesson 
of Cholula to be this: that higher, grander, 
and far more enduring than all the different 
religions of humanity are the Eternal Power 
they imperfectly reveal; and that above the 
temples, pyramids, and crosses, which mark 
the blood-stained pathway of our race, rises a 
lofty mountain peak, whose glory falls alike 
upon the Aztec and the Spaniard, and in whose 
heaven-born radiance all races and all cen- 
turies may find their inspiration and their 
hope. ' ' 

The Valley of Oaxaca seems to have been 
the favourite dwelling place of one or more 
of the early races of Mexico. All over the 
vales that centre at Oaxaca, and on the sur- 
rounding hills, are ruins of former cities and 
palaces that strongly resemble in outline and 
decoration the works of the Ptolemies and 



152 Mexico and Her People To-day 

Pharaohs. Next to Mitla, the most noted ruins 
in this valley are those of Monte Alban. The 
site of this ancient city is four miles from 
Oaxaca on the summit of a mountain, about 
eleven hundred feet above the valley. The 
ruins extend for a distance of more than a mile 
along the ridge, and enclose a great rectangu- 
lar, depressed court nine hundred feet long, 
and three hundred feet in width. There are 
some well-preserved, sculptured stones with 
pictorial inscriptions, and images of gods. 
Because of its situation, which commands a 
complete view of these valleys in every direc- 
tion, it is supposed that this place was intended 
for defence and a place of refuge in troublous 
times. The view from the summit is magnifi- 
cent and well repays the traveller for a couple 
of hours' ride on the back of that sadly-wise, 
and much-maligned animal — the Mexican 
mule. 

The village of Mitla is situated about twenty- 
five miles south-east of Oaxaca. It is best 
visited from that city by coach or mules. We 
hired a coach and driver, an unprepossessing 
looking outfit, and started on the journey. 

" How long will it takef " I asked the dri- 
ver. 

'' A las doce," he replied in idiomatic Span- 



In the Footsteps of the Ancients 153 



ish, meaning that we would arrive at twelve 
o'clock. As we had started at seven o'clock, 
that made it a five hours' journey. 

About an hour's ride out of Oaxaca is the 
village of Tule, where, in the churchyard, and 
overshadowing the sacred structure, stands 
the famous Big Tree of Tule which deserves 
a passing notice. Although not a ruin, it is 
a relic of prehistoric days long gone by. This 
venerable giant is one of the largest trees in 
the world, exceeding in circumference the fa- 
mous redwoods of California, and equalling 
the largest reported specimens of the gigantic 
baobab of Africa. This great tree is one hun- 
dred and fifty-four feet in circumference six 
feet above the ground. Twenty-eight people 
with their hands outstretched, and touching 
their finger tips, can just encircle its great 
girth. The height is one hundred and sixty 
feet, and the spread of the branches one hun- 
dred and forty feet. It is a species of the 
cypress called by the Aztecs ahuehuete. The 
great traveller, Humboldt, visited this tree 
about the middle of the last century and affixed 
a tablet containing his name and an inscrip- 
tion. As a proof that this old cypress is still 
growing, one sees that this tablet is now almost 
grown over with bark nearly a foot thick. 



154 Mexico and Her People To-day 

Tule is a quaint village where the thatched 
huts are enclosed by fences of the prickly cac- 
tus, called organo, because of the resemblance 
of its branches to the pipes of an organ, and 
the lanes are shaded by trees. Underneath the 
higher trees grow the orange and lemon, while 
the oleander and other flowering bushes add 
their brightness to the scene. 

After being held up for a road charge of 
seven cents by the officials of the village, which 
we paid, the driver is allowed to proceed. We 
pass through villages with the poetical names 
of Tlacolulu and Tlacochahuaya. As the coach 
bounces along the rough highway, over the 
road on a hillside are seen caves where human 
beings live who are literally cliff-dwellers. 
Then the valley opens up, and far ahead is seen 
San Pablo Mitla a typical Indian village built 
around the hacienda of Don Felix Quero, who 
is a sort of feudal lord over the neighbouring 
peons. Good entertainment is furnished for 
the traveller, and it is delightful to rest within 
the high walls of this hospitable stopping- 
place. 

The first mention of the ruins at this village 
is by a Spanish writer nearly four centuries 
ago. His description would not be much amiss 
to-day. It is as follows : ' ' We passed through 



In the Footsteps of the Ancients 155 

a pueblo which is called Mictlan, signifying 
' hell ' in the native tongue, where were found 
some edifices more worth seeing than anything 
else in New Spain. Among them was a temple 
of the demon, and the dwelling of its attend- 
ants — very sightly, particularly one hall made 
of something like lattice work. The fabric was 
of stone, with many figures and shapes ; it had 
many doorways, each one built of three great 
stones, two at the sides and one at the top, all 
very thick and wide. In these quarters there 
was another hall containing round pillars, each 
one of a single piece, and so thick that two 
men could barely embrace them; their height 
might be five fathoms." 

To what purposes were these truly magnifi- 
cent structures dedicated? Were they palaces, 
temples, tombs, fortresses, dwelling places, 
storehouses or places of refuge? Neither ar- 
cheologists nor antiquarians have satisfac- 
torily answered these questions. According to 
many of the leading archeologists they are the 
most interesting and best preserved ruins in 
North America. Here was a great city built 
by a race prior to the Aztecs, for that race 
could tell the Spanish conquerors nothing of 
its builders. The secrets guarded by the huge 
monoliths of stone, and the high mosaic-cov- 



156 Mexico and Her People To-day 

ered walls of Mitla are safe from prying eyes. 
Not one city alone stood here, for there are 
many remains of walls, columns and huge mon- 
oliths thrown down similar to these, scattered 
all over this valley. The best authority says 
that they were used for tombs but this could 
not have been the only use. They were prob- 
ably also used for places of worship, public 
purposes, or cities of refuge, or perhaps for 
all those purposes. 

A close investigation shows that there are 
five distinct groups of the ruins, but some of 
them are in badly preserved condition. The 
village covers the site of a part of them. 
There is a similarity in the structure of all, 
as the outer walls are composed of oblong 
panels of mosaic forming arabesques and 
grecques. At first sight, or at a distance, it 
looks like sculptured designs on the walls. 
Closer inspection reveals the fact that this 
mosaic is formed of pieces of stone accurately 
cut and fitted into the face of the walls. These 
pieces are about seven inches in length, one 
inch in thickness, and two in breadth. The 
patterns cannot well be described as they are 
so complicated. All the ornamentation con- 
sists of geometrical figures, either rectangular 
or diagonal, and differs from all other ruins 




ENTRANCE TO THE UNDERGROrXD CHAMBER, MITT.A 




NORTH TEMPLE^ MITLA 




HALL OF THE MONOLITHS, MITLA 



In the Footsteps of the Ancients 157 

in Mexico, in that there are no human or ani- 
mal figures. 

There is an underground chamber beneath 
one of the temples, built in the shape of a cross 
with each arm about twelve feet long. The 
sides are worked into the same mosaic pattern 
as the rest of the walls. It is generally be- 
lieved that these chambers were tombs, al- 
though some contend that they were the en- 
trance to subterranean passages leading long 
distances away. If so, the passages were filled 
up long ago. 

The northwestern group is in the best state 
of preservation. One of the buildings here 
covers nearly eight thousand square feet, and 
has all its massive walls intact with scarcely 
a stone thrown down. The characteristic en- 
trance, consisting of three doors, side by side, 
is seen here also, fronting the interior of the 
court. The lintels are immense blocks of stone 
eighteen feet long, five feet wide and four feet 
high. How these immense stones were trans- 
ported to this spot and raised without the aid 
of machinery, is as great a mystery as similar 
accompHshments by the Egyptians. Through 
these doors the famous Hall of Monoliths, or 
Columns, is reached. This is a wonderful relic 
of prehistoric architecture. The six mono- 



158 Mexico and Her People To-day 

litliic columns, still standing in this room are 
each twelve feet in height and almost nine feet 
in circumference. They are plain stones hav- 
ing neither pedestal nor capital and are unique 
among the ruins of the world. 

Torquemada, an old Spanish historian, 
writes of this hall in the following quaint 
style: " There was in those Edifices, or 
Square of the Temple, another Hall, all framed 
around Pillars of Stone; very high and so 
thick that scarce might two Men of good height 
embrace them so as to touch finger tips the 
one with the other. And these Pillars were all 
of one piece ; and they say that all the Pillars 
and Columns, from top to bottom, was four 
Fathoms. The Pillars were very like to those 
of St. Mary, the Greater, of Rome, all very 
well and smoothly wrought." This hall is 
more than a hundred feet long, and twenty 
feet wide. These great stones may have sup- 
ported a roof formerly but there is no evidence 
of it at the present time. 

From the Hall of the Monoliths a dark, 
stone-covered passage leads into a room called 
the Audience Chamber. This is a splendid 
room with its walls in carved mosaics, or a set- 
ting of tiles, after the Grecian models. There 
are four long, narrow rooms, or corridors, on 



In the Footsteps of the Anc ienta 159 

either side of this main chamber without other 
entrance except the one just mentioned. One 
of these, the West room, is most beautiful and 
is nearly perfect, as scarcely a tile is broken 
or missing from its exquisitely inlaid walls 
which at first inspection look like stucco work. 
The tiles are so accurately inlaid that no mor- 
tar was used, or needed, to hold them in place. 
This is the Corridor of the Mosaics. There 
are also traces of a lustrous, dark, red paint, 
used on a hard cement plaster. It is quite 
probable that all the buildings in the five 
groups were as carefully constructed and as 
exquisitely ornamented as this one, but they 
have been destroyed by succeeding races. 

North of this group was another ruin on the 
walls of which a Christian church has been 
built. Most of the materials used in its con- 
struction came from this old temple or palace. 
The sacristy of this church is formed in part 
of a portion of the old building, and covered 
with a tile roof. This structure was the largest 
of all in size, extending over a space nearly 
three hundred feet long by one hundred feet 
wide, and with walls from five to six feet in 
thickness. One room is now used as a stable, 
and contains some strange hieroglyphics done 
in a lustrous red paint which have never been 



160 Mexico and Her People To-day 

decipliered. These are the only semblance to 
anything like writing, or historical inscrip- 
tions, that appear anywhere in the ruins. In 
the centre of the main court is a hard cement 
pavement laid out in the form of a square with 
a cut stone border. This may have been in- 
tended for ornament or for human sacrifices. 
The latter conjecture might not be erroneous, 
knowing, as we do, the customs of those early 
Mexican races. 

There are many other evidences of ruins near 
Mitla. Clay idols, or images, made of terra- 
cotta are found all over the neighbourhood. 
Children hunt for specimens and bring them 
to tourists for sale. It is also said that many 
stone wedges, and copper chisels and axes, 
have been discovered here but I did not see 
any of them. 

Who built these ruins? Bancroft, the his- 
torian of Mexico, says that they were built by 
the Zapotecs at an early period of their civili- 
zation. The Indians now inhabiting this val- 
ley are Zapotecs and they are a primitive, 
simple and harmless race. If these people, 
who now dwell in thatch hovels and caves, were 
the once proud race that erected these mag- 
nificent structures, then we must say, '' How 
have the mighty fallen." What must these 




A ZAPOTECO WOMAN 



In the Footstep s of the Ancients 161 

structures have been in the heyday of their 
prosperity that they are now so glorious in 
their mellow decay? The famous Palace of 
the Alhambra, glorious monument to the 
genius of the Moor, is scarcely more magnifi- 
cent than these ruins lying here within the 
little Indian village of Mitla. The traveller 
can give his imagination full play for there is 
no written history to destroy the scenes he cre- 
ates. He can in fancy re-create these beautiful 
structures ; people these courts and halls with 
royalty, priests or warriors; make the air 
vocal with the chants of priests or shrieks of 
the victims of hmuan sacrifice; and there is 
no one or no record to rebuke him. 



CHAPTER IX 

WOMAN AND HER SPHERE 

The life and position of woman in Mexico 
varies much by reason of the heterogeneous 
character of the population. Because of the 
absence of a clearly defined middle class it is 
a fairly safe proposition to say that there are 
but two classes in Mexico, Creoles and Indians. 
Creoles include all those who are Europeans 
or in whom the European blood predominates. 
Domestic life among the Creole class savours 
of the East. The ideas with respect to women 
are Moorish rather than American. Although 
not obliged to appear on the street with face 
enshrouded in a shawl or veil, yet the young 
woman who has respect for her good name 
would not go abroad without the duenna, or 
some female companion. Another reminder of 
Oriental exclusiveness is seen in the life of the 
ladies of the wealthier classes who always 
drive in closed carriages even in this land of 

162 



Woman and Her Sphere 163 

balmy air and splendid sunshine and, when 
shopping, do not deign to leave the carriage. 

On account of the restrictions against the 
appearance of women in public, the custom 
grew up in Spain and Mexico of allowing them 
to use the windows and balconies for observa- 
tion. In the cool of the evening the windows 
on the streets are opened and women, espe- 
cially the young ladies, appear there to watch 
the carriages and passers-by and nod to their 
friends. The home life and social restrictions 
toward women are inherited from Spanish an- 
cestors who were at one time the aristocracy 
and ruling class of Mexico. Nowhere is the 
sentiment of home stronger than among the 
Creoles. There may be no such word as home 
in his vocabulary but the casa, or house, of 
the Mexican is his castle and he protects it in 
every way from prying eyes. One writer has 
expressed his view as follows : — ^ ' The in- 
tense feeling of individuality which so strongly 
marks the Spanish character and which in the 
political world is so fatal an element of strife 
and obstruction, favours this peculiar domes- 
ticity. The Castillian is submissive to his king 
and his priest ; haughty and inflexible with his 
equals. But his own house is a refuge from 
the contests of out of doors. ' ' 



164 Mexico and Her People To-day 

In the home the father is absolute lord and 
master and all bow to him. There never comes 
a time when the children are not subject more 
or less to parental authority. Yet, in general, 
the sway is so mild that it is readily yielded 
to and is scarcely felt. Grown-up sons and 
daughters do not forget the respect and obedi- 
ence that was expected of them when they were 
children. The reverence for parents increases 
with the passing of the years. A man never 
grows too old to kiss the hand of his aged 
mother. The old lady dressed in sombre black 
and who looks like a poor relation may be the 
one whose wishes rule. Harmony does not 
exist in every family and the exceptions are 
striking ones. Where quarrels and family dis- 
sensions do occur, the pride and jealousy of 
the race renders them the bitterest and fiercest 
in the world. These vindictive feuds in fam- 
ilies frequently led to duels and stabbing af- 
frays to defend personal honour and dignity 
in former days. A man and wife will often live 
for years beneath the same roof without speak- 
ing. They cannot be divorced but neither will 
speak the first word and each rather admires 
the grit of the other. 

The home life is jealously shielded from 
curious eyes. In no place in the world is the 



Woman and Her Sphere 165 

social circle more closely guarded than among 
the higher classes in the City of Mexico. The 
thick walls, the barred, prison-like windows 
and the massive, well-guarded doors prevent 
intrusion and perhaps serve to foster this in- 
clination to lead exclusive lives. Cultured 
Americans, unless in the official set, who have 
lived there for years have found it impossible 
to break into these exclusive circles. Whether 
this action is due to jealousy, diffidence, a feel- 
ing of superiority, or aversion to aliens the 
fact remains that they are very loth to admit 
Americans into the privacy of their homes. 
The foreigner has few opportunities of judg- 
ing intelligently of the women for they are 
immured so closely within the four walls of 
their dwellings. Social life in the semi-public, 
gregarious ways of American cities is unknown 
and would not suit these privacy-loving, do- 
mestic women. 

In " The Awakening of a Nation " the au- 
thor, Mr. C. F. Lummis, gives a very good 
description of the Creole woman: '' Always 
and everywhere the Spanish- American female 
face is interesting ; at least as often as in other 
bloods it is beautiful. Photographs tell but 
half the story, for complexion is beyond them. 
But a certain clearness of feature, the almost 



166 Mexico and Her People To-day 

invariable beauty of the eyes and fine strength 
of the brows seem as much a Spanish birth- 
right as the high-bred hand and foot. Not even 
the Parisian face is so flexible in expression, 
so fit for archness, so graphic to the mood. 
Yet there is a certain presence in it not to be 
unnoticed, not to be forgotten. To no woman 
on earth is religion a more vital, ever-present, 
all-pervading actuality; and that is why you 
meet the face of the Madonna almost literally 
at every corner in Spanish- America. And it 
is not a superficial thing. There is none to 
whom the wife-heart, the mother-heart is truer- 
womanly. ' ' 

The Mexican men are passionate admirers of 
the fair sex. Perhaps it is because of the be- 
witchery of their black, sparkling eyes. Cer- 
tainly it is not on account of the white paste 
which is plastered over their faces or the rouge 
on their lips. Nor have they added to their 
attractiveness by the substitution of the Pari- 
sian hat for the graceful lace mantilla which 
lent itself so well to the gentle art of coquetry. 
There are many handsome women among the 
Creoles but they are not all beautiful as some 
writers would lead the reader to infer. They 
are bright, vivacious and naturally clever. 
They have a quick understanding which only 



Woman and Her Sphere 167 

needs to be cultivated and perhaps this intel- 
ligence is quicker and more active than that 
of the men. They can weave and embroider 
with taste and skill. They know a little music 
and a little French but, in the American sense, 
they are not well educated. The real intel- 
lectual element is wanting and the understand- 
ing is uncultivated. The higher education for 
women has not received the stamp of approval 
in this land of " to-morrow " and the sex has 
not yet become an important factor in the busi- 
ness or professional world. " If only learned 
wives," sajs one, " are responsible for that 
poor, downtrodden, pitiable specimen of man 
called the henpecked husband, then a timid 
man would be safe in choosing a Mexican 
wife." The patriarchal element of society in 
which man is recognized as lord and master 
is still in force among these people. The ques- 
tion of woman's rights has never yet agitated 
the bosoms of these gentle women. 

Domestic freedom in the sense understood 
by Americans is absent. The daughters are 
closely watched by their mothers who seldom 
permit them out of their sight unless accom- 
panied by some older woman or faithful serv- 
ant. Such a thing as permitting a daughter 
to have a young man call on her or accompany 



168 Mexico and Her People To-day 

her to tlie theatre would never enter the mind 
of the Mexican mother. In her estimation the 
men do not deserve any confidence until they 
are married. The man, of course, thinks that 
these precautions are unnecessarily cruel. 
Nevertheless mammas think they are essen- 
tial, pater familias approves and so the custom 
remains. Perhaps it is these restrictions that 
are reponsible for the reputation the senoritas, 
or young women, have of being flirts or co- 
quettes. They are overflowing with life and 
spirits and their black eyes look so full of mis- 
chief that sometimes they seem to be just spoil- 
ing for a flirtation. They are very animated 
in conversation and in talking keep time with 
hands, knees, shoulders, elbows and face. 
Their talk is full of the most extravagant and 
seemingly profane expressions. 

' ' Oh, Jesus ! ' ' says one girl, ' ' what a fetch- 
ing hat." 

" Mary Most Pure," replies her companion, 
" it must have cost five pesos." 

They can stare an American out of counte- 
nance and look him straight in the eye but it 
is only a look of curiosity. The social pleas- 
ures resulting from the intermingling of the 
sexes that are so common with us are not en- 
joyed by them. At a dance the men retire to 



Woman and Her Sphere 169 

one side of the room after a nmnber and the 
women take seats on the opposite side. Mar- 
riages among the wealthier classes are gen- 
erally made by the parents without consulta- 
tion with the principals in an affair supposed 
to be of the hearts. After the formal engage- 
ment the intended husband is allowed to call 
on his fiancee in the presence of the entire 
family and may take her out to the theatre 
when accompanied by the mother and all the 
female members of the household. Marriage 
is a formidable undertaking for the groom 
must furnish the entire bridal outfit, in addi- 
tion to the house and its furnishings. Two 
ceremonies become necessary, too, if the couple 
wish to be married by the rites of the church. 
The civil ceremony is absolutely essential and 
cannot be dispensed with for under the law 
this is the only legal marriage. And yet with 
all these inconveniences to courtship and mat- 
rimony, bachelors are less numerous than they 
are where every facility is granted for love 
making. 

Love and religion are practically the only 
two subjects with which a senorita is expected 
to concern herself. She is, probably, not in- 
tentionally or by nature a flirt and she might 
scorn to inveigle in her meshes the heart of 



170 Mexico and Her People To-day 

an admirer, but she cannot refrain from using 
her irresistible eyes or entirely avoid the co- 
quettish use of the indispensable fan with its 
wordless telegraphy. The Mexican lover pays 
extravagant homage to his sweetheart and a 
woman nowhere else is paid such delicate and 
elaborate compliments. The Spanish method 
of courtship in which the lady is pictured as 
sitting at a barred window or leaning from a 
balcony to listen to the honeyed phrases of her 
lover or the music of his guitar has reached 
its highest state of perfection in Mexico. 

In the current language of that country a 
man who is courting a woman is " playing the 
bear." It is so named from the restless walk- 
ing to and fro of the love-stricken youth in 
front of the window of his inamorata, in a 
manner not unlike a captive bear in a cage. 
The same method pursued in the United States 
would either result in a man being sent to the 
lunatic asylum as suffering from a " brain 
storm " or to the workhouse. 

A young man who sees a young lady on the 
street whom he admires, begins by following 
her home although it may be days or weeks 
before he will venture to speak to her. Hav- 
ing reached her casa he will begin the hacer 
el oso, or ' ' playing the bear, ' ' by walking back 



mi 
















Woman and Her Sphere 171 

and forth in front of the house or standing on 
the street with his eyes fixed upon her windows 
or balconies for hours at a time, days and 
nights alike. The young lady, if interested at 
all, will remain back of the curtain and the 
slightest movement of the curtains or blinds 
is a sign that she is not entirely indifferent. 
After a day or two she may show her face or 
wave her hand as a further mark of encourage- 
ment, and after several days she may appear 
on the balcony for a few moments. If she goes 
to church the lover is probably not far behind 
and an occasional smile or glance from her 
eyes of midnight is given him as a reward for 
his faithfulness. Next come daily salutes and 
smiles when the lover appears. Flowers are 
sent by the aid of the water-carriers or char- 
coal-vendors in which notes are concealed. A 
system of wireless-telegraphy communication 
is established by means of a fan on one side 
and a cigarette on the other. This medium 
of communication has been developed until it 
has become an elaborate code. Letters become 
more and more endearing. When the court- 
ship has so far advanced that the lovers will 
talk, the moonlight nights are all devoted to 
the love-making and several pairs of lovers 
can be seen on almost any street by the late 



172 Mexico and Her People To-day 

home-comer- — lie on the sidewalk, she at the 
window. This courtship frequently extends 
over a period of years and the lover who makes 
himself so ridiculous sometimes loses the girl 
then. Jacob's seven-year probation has many 
counterparts among the Eomeos of Mexico. 

A young woman of my acquaintance and her 
sister recently visited a family in one of the 
large cities in Mexico. Like all young women 
they soon became interested in the subject of 
Mexican courtship and began to sigh for a 
*' bear." Every time they returned from a 
trip down town a watch was kept from the 
window to see if a " bear " followed. At last 
one of these creatures appeared and began to 
pace in front of the house with his eyes bent 
upon the window opening out on the balcony. 
Contrary to all precedents and to the surprise 
of the neighbourhood, these women could not 
resist the temptation to go out on the balcony 
on this first occasion. This was such marked 
encouragement that the man came day after 
day to see las Senoritas Americanas and was 
still coming when their visit ended. 

American women who have married Mexican 
husbands have found the ideas of the two races 
so radically opposed that the unions have not 
been harmonious. Their verdict is that a Mex- 



Woman and Her Sphere 173 



ican man makes an ideal lover because of his 
delicate attentions and consideration, but an 
unsatisfactory husband since he does not make 
his wife a companion and confidante such as an 
American woman considers her right and priv- 
ilege. 

The individuality of the woman is not so 
completely merged in that of her husband at 
marriage as in the United States. The woman 
retains her own name but adds that of her hus- 
band. Miss Mary Smith who marries Mr. John 
Jones becomes Mrs. Mary Smith de Jones, and 
she is not called so exclusively by her hus- 
band's name. However, when the Mexican 
woman is married she accommodates herself to 
the station in life provided by her husband. 
The wife usually accepts whatever condition 
fate has provided for her and bears it with 
patience and fortitude. They endure the petty 
ills of life with great cheerfulness. They do 
not go into society much as custom keeps them 
from attending mixed assemblages frequently. 
Their world is generally confined to their home, 
husband and children. An American woman 
would sigh for liberty if compelled to live this 
life. The Mexican woman in America shrinks 
from the freedom prevalent here and desires 
the seclusion of her native land. Families are 



174 Mexico and Her People To-day 



usually large so that home duties require a 
great deal of attention. The respect and cour- 
tesy paid by children to their parents is truly 
delightful to witness and shows a real goodness 
of heart in them. 

The mother cannot bear to see her family 
separated. She wants them all to stay close 
together so that each one can stop in and see 
her every day. The mothers are loving and 
tender and idolize their boys. It is regarded 
as a terrible thing, scarcely to be borne, for 
their sons to go out into the world as Ameri- 
can youths do. To go to a distant city is like 
being transported to Australia. Even when 
they remain near home the mothers are very 
solicitous for fear they will work too hard. 
On each saint's day, which is religiously ob- 
served, presents are given and an old-fash- 
ioned dinner, to which all the cousins, aunts 
and uncles are invited, is served. In starting 
on a journey to a not-distant city, the youth 
must visit all his relatives in the neighbour- 
hood and bid adieu. 

It is interesting to notice these traits in an 
age of growing indifference; but not a little 
of the lack of progress in Mexico can be attrib- 
uted to this unwillingness to sever home ties. 
Many of these young men could do better for 



Woman and Her Sphere 175 

themselves away from home but a mother's 
pleadings and a mother's tears keep them at 
home. Even after marriage they frequently 
continue to live under the same roof. 

The religious element enters very largely 
into the life of women. Their very names are 
a constant reminder of their worship. Many 
of them are christened Mary with one of the 
attributes of the Virgin or some incident in the 
life of the Virgin added such as Conception, 
Annunciation, Sorrows or Assumption. Or 
there are the attributes such as Mary of the 
Sorrows, of the Gifts, Miracles, Tears, etc. 
Religion is sustained by the women and you 
will seldom see men at the services unless it 
is some poor Indian. They are very pious in 
their way and attend to their religious duties 
with the ■ same interest that they perform 
their toilet. The concrete symbols and observ- 
ances of the church have a great influence over 
them. At mass these pious worshippers al- 
ways dress in sombre black. They are very 
particular in training their children in the prin- 
ciples of the Church. Formerly great faith 
was placed in the healing power of certain 
shrines and relics but this is now dying out 
under the advance of modern physicians and 
their healing remedies. They are still great 



176 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
believers in signs, omens and other supernat- 
ural manifestations. 

Above all these women are kind hearted and 
charitable. Though carefully guarding their 
homes, yet if a stranger is admitted into the 
family he is received with a generous welcome. 
Should he return after long absence, he is 
greeted almost as one of the family and with- 
out reservation. He is not only permitted but 
encouraged to call all the members by their 
given names and to use the pronoun tu or 
^' thou " in his intercourse with them. This is 
an especial privilege among Spanish people 
who are very particular about familiarity in 
address. They will oftentimes deprive them- 
selves for a friend. They have their faults 
too. Although smoking is not countenanced in 
public it is said that many of them smoke in 
their boudoirs and in the company of friends 
of their own sex. A great deal has been said 
of their lack of morality but this is a subject 
upon which only those very familiar with the 
facts should dare to speak, for it cannot be 
treated lightly, or solely with the in^'* n of 
casting a slur on another race. 

The lives of the Indian women of Mexico 
present a far different picture. Ins . jad of liv 
ing in great palaces, their homes are in little 



Woman and Her Sphere 177 



adobe cabins of one room, perhaps without the 
luxury of a window, or in bamboo huts covered 
with plantain leaves without chairs or table 
and only a mat of husks for a bed. There is 
no seclusion in their lives and the real duties 
of life begin at a very early age. I cannot call 
them serious duties for it is doubtful if these 
people regard any of the obligations of life as 
very serious. Their early experiences are with 
its hard realities. They can be seen on the 
streets and around their homes with baby 
brothers or sisters swung across their backs 
when they themselves are so small that the 
burden seems far too heavy for them. On the 
banks of the streams they can be seen doing 
the family washing with a great amount of 
rubbing and pounding and wringing. To the 
fountains and wells they come carrying earthen 
jars on their heads, which they fill with water 
and replace with a grace and charm that ex- 
cites admiration. 

Some of the Indian maids are handsome. 
Yet you can tell just what their future lives 
will be by observing those of the parents. 
They will live in the same squalor, the same 
poverty as their ancestors have dwelt for 
centuries. They will go through life bare- 
headed and barefooted and empty-minded just 



178 Mexico and Her People To-day 

as the generations which preceded have done. 
At twenty they have begun to fade and at 
thirty they retain scarcely a trace of their 
beauty. This is due to hard labour and dep- 
rivations. At fourteen few are unmarried or 
at least unmated. The marriage ceremony is 
frequently omitted because of the high charges 
of the priesthood, yet both parties are usually 
faithful. The number of children among this 
class is truly marvellous. More than one half 
of the younger women when seen on the street 
have infant children with them. 

No people could be more poorly housed or 
more poorly equipped for domestic duties than 
these small brown women; and none use the 
little they have to better advantage or are more 
loyal to the man they call lord and master. 
They frequently live and sleep on the bare 
ground and possess no more clothing than they 
have on their bodies. They will pound away 
at the mietate, or stone kneading-board, all day 
making the tortillas which are both bread and 
meat to the peon class. These comely Indian 
women will bend their lithe, active bodies for 
hours washing clothes on large round stones 
which serve as wash-boards. 

Their clothes are simple and the latest fash- 
ion has no attraction. The rebosa is a uni- 



Woman and Her Sphere 179 

versal garment and answers for a shawl, a 
carry-all for babies and bundles, and a covering 
for the owner at night. These black-eyed 
women with their half-concealed faces, sober, 
unemotional manners, high-coloured garments 
and curious Egyptian-shaped pottery might 
well be from the shores of the Red Sea. Their 
love of warm, bright colours is even seen in 
their love for flowers since the many-hued, 
brilliant-coloured blossoms are everywhere. 
Mignonettes and roses, flowering geraniums 
and scarlet poppies, gigantic oleanders and 
dainty pansies share attention with the bril- 
liant-hued tropical birds in gayest colours 
which usually hang beside the open door in 
a home-made cage of dried rushes. They are 
faithful workers in fancy work and will follow 
the most intricate design and reproduce it with 
fidelity and ease. Their art needle work on 
handkerchiefs and other linen articles is ex- 
tremely fine and their drawn work is praised 
everywhere. It is not the work of the dainty 
fingers of educated women but of very humble 
and ignorant peon women in floorless cabins of 
adobe and of hands accustomed to drudgery. 

The women of Tehuantepec are remarkable 
for their beauty of face and form. They are 
easily the finest looking Indian women in 



180 Mexico and Her People To-day 

America and in beauty of figure will compare 
witli any race in the world. They are dark- 
skinned, almost a soft olive-brown, with spar- 
kling dark eyes, masses of wavy hair, exquisite 
features and beautiful teeth, which are kept 
clean and white. Their carriage will attract 
attention, for they walk erect and with a pecul- 
iar stride probably due to the prevailing habit 
of carrying baskets and water jars always on 
the h^ad, where they are carefully balanced. 
They are small in stature, with fine limbs, and 
seem born models for an artist. 

The '' Tehuanas " wear a quaint head-dress 
called ' ' liuepil, ' ' which is made of coarse white 
lace. It is arranged in three different ways 
according to the occasion. At a dance it is 
wound round the neck and stands out like a 
huge Elizabethan ruff. In church it is put on 
the head something like a Boulogne fish-wife's 
cap. For ordinary wear it is simply laid back 
on the hair and the folds hang down the back 
resembling somewhat the feather head-dress 
of a North American Indian chief. It is in- 
deed curious but is quite befitting. They al- 
ways dress becomingly, with the quaint little 
short jackets which expose a section of brown 
back above the skirt band and are cut low about 
the neck in a fashion that women the world 



Woman and Her Sphere 181 

r 

over have found graceful, and with extremely 
short sleeves. On extraordinary occasions this 
short jacket, or waist, is of richer material em- 
broidered in handsome designs of brilliant col- 
ours. Some of the designs show oriental charac- 
teristics. The skirt of the dress is of soft mate- 
rial, linen or cotton, to the knees and below 
the knees is of a heavy lace or embroidery 
starched very stiff. The material used is not 
the usual cheap and gaudy fabrics sold to the 
Mexican Indian, but is of good quality and 
specially made by a certain Manchester house 
for these people. 

These belles of Tehuantepec have a great 
liking for American gold coins which are worn 
on necklaces. British sovereigns or French 
napoleons are usually not desired, but a big 
premium will be paid for the eagle, half eagle, 
or double eagles of Uncle Sam. Every centavo 
that a woman can save goes into her fund for 
purchasing gold pieces. The gorgeous neck- 
lace with the gold coins attached makes a showj^ 
and rather beautiful ornament. The fortune 
and standing of a " Tehuana " is indicated by 
the number of gold coins on her necklace. One 
Tehuantepec heiress has — it is said — a neck- 
lace which is valued at three thousand dollars. 
The most striking feature in the dress of these 



182 Mexico and Her People To-day 

women is that not one will wear shoes. Dressed 
in all her finery, head-dress, starched skirt, 
polka-dot waist, necklace and smile, she will 
appear barefooted — a strange anomaly. 
Without shoes they will dance over a stone 
floor, or even a dirt, gravel-bestrewn surface, 
with a grace that violates all rules of art. 
These dusky princesses will be found as grace- 
ful as gazelles on all occasions. 

A visit to Tehuantepec will long be remem- 
bered for it is an experience not easily for- 
gotten. The quaint costumes, the striking 
dress, and the proud people combine to 6iake 
a memory worth carrying away. 



CHAPTER X 

THE PEON" 

« And I have said, and I say it ever, 
As the years go on and the world goes over, 
'Twere better to be content and clever 
In tending of cattle and tossing of clover, 
In the grazing of cattle and growing of grain, 
Than a strong man striving for fame or gain ; 

For these have the sun, and moon, and air, 

And never a bit of the burthen of care ; 

And with all our caring what more have we ? " 

The distinction between tlie American and 
Mexican Indian is not one of colour alone. 
There is also a difference in nature. The 
American Indian has never been fully subdued, 
but the Aztecs were conquered by one over- 
whelming blow and their spirit crushed. The 
conquest wrought vast phanges in the lives of 
these people who once roamed over large es- 
tates which they could call their own. The 
lands then tilled by their slaves, they themr 
selves now cultivate for others. Yet they are 
a satisfied people, and no one ever hears them 

183 



184 Mexico and Her People To-day 

complain. Though poverty is their lot they are 
content, believing that some people are born 
rich and others poor, and that this contrast 
is in the very nature of things. 

Centuries of neglect have not improved 
either the moral or physical condition of the 
peon, but it has not made a misanthrope of 
him. Neither has the fact that he bears no part 
in the government made him an anarchist or 
filled his pockets with bombs. So long as a 
beneficent providence provides present needs 
he is supremely content. The mania for the 
almighty dollar has not yet entered into his 
life so that envy of others does not exist. It 
is this envy that makes poverty a menace and 
element of danger in our own land. The peon 
neither feels shame for his own lowly condi- 
tion nor desires pity from others in more pros- 
perous circumstances. 

Fully one-third of the population of Mexico 
are full-blooded Indians and another one-half 
are mestizos, those of mixed blood. Many of 
the latter and a number of pure-blooded Indians 
have reached high positions. A number of the 
presidents also, including Guerrero and the 
noble Juarez, were pure Indians, and more of 
them are representatives of the mestizos. This 
is proof that there is no prejudice against the 




A PKON AND HIS WIFE 



The Peon 185 

Indians as a race such as the anti-negro senti- 
ment in the Southern States. These illustri- 
ous examples are, however, the striking excep- 
tions. Most of them are in about the same 
category as the southern negroes, — a race 
without ambition. Content to be the servants 
of another race they neither court nor wel- 
come change. 

These people make up the great peon class 
of Mexico who constitute the bulk of the popu- 
lation. They are the descendants of those who 
were enslaved by the early conquerors. The 
Aztecs were an industrious people as the great 
structures erected by them, the irrigating 
works still in use, and the evidences of judi- 
cious and careful cultivation of every foot of 
tillable soil bear mute witness. Poverty was 
almost unknown among them and rigid laws 
existed against begging. Among some of the 
early tribes of Mexico one-third of the land was 
divided equally among the able-bodied men in 
proportion to the families they had to sustain. 
Provision was made by the State for the sick 
and other classes of unfortunates. No doubt 
the enslaving of these people had a weakening 
effect upon their character. 

A natural laziness, ignorance and a lack of 
interest will probably always keep down the 



186 Mexico and Her People To-day 

peon's efficiency as a worker. The few and 
simple wants of his nature and his general con- 
tentment eliminate to a great extent the desire 
to improve his condition and accumulate prop- 
erty. Then, too, the evenness of the climate 
and the fact that at all times some crop is being 
harvested, thus making it unnecessary to lay 
up for an unproductive season, has had its 
influence. The labourer is usually given a cer- 
tain task for his day's work. Nothing can in- 
duce him to do more than that task except the 
assurance that the excess, or over-time, will be 
credited to some future day so that he will get 
a longer holiday. These labourers are cheap 
and it requires many of them to accomplish 
much but there are millions to be had. They 
are happy-go-lucky and are unconcerned for 
the future. Yet the very fact that they do not 
possess self-control and are always willing to 
follow a leader who understands how to make 
an appeal to their prejudices or fanaticism, 
renders this class a serious obstacle to a pro- 
gressive government and one that must be in- 
telligently studied. 

The little brown man in the tall, broad- 
brimmed hat which seems to give an unusual 
height to his sturdy frame is a picturesque 
figure and the landscape is not complete with- 



The Peon 187 

out him. In the presence of strangers his face 
is solemn, but among others of his own kind 
he is gay and light-hearted, his face easily 
bursting into smiles. He will wrap his tattered 
shawl about him with as much dignity as the 
Spanish cavalier his richly-embroidered mania. 
The act of lighting a cigarette is a matter of 
studied ceremony. He will light a match, and 
first offer it to a friend with punctilious polite- 
ness. The recipient of the favour never fails 
to return miichas gracias (many thanks), 
senor. In fact, this elaborate politeness be- 
tween these untidy, ill-clad Indians becomes a 
farce-comedy at times. He is polite and never 
fails to say con permiso (with your permission) 
if he is obliged to pass by another person, 
whether that person be in silks or rags. His 
own inferiority is admitted by calling a white 
man a gente de razon or '' one who reasons," 
as distinguished from himself, — a peon. 

The peon is indispensable in Mexico for he 
is not only the labourer, but the body servant 
as well. In the latter capacity, if he becomes 
attached to his employer, he will not think of 
his own wants until the master is provided for, 
and will be faithful unto death, if necessary. 
His wages are always small, but he is satisfied 
with the little he gets. Gambling is a natural 



188 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
trait and lie loses or gains with a stoicism 
worthy of greater things. His money is like- 
wise spent freely at the pulque shop so that his 
finances are never embarrassed by a surplus. 
A little money will make him very full of liquor, 
and a little liquor will sometimes make him a 
bad man to handle. 

The tenacity with which these people cling- 
to an environment is a most notable trait. The 
peon is a lover of locality. Seldom can these 
Indians be induced to go away from their ac- 
customed habitations. It is this trait that has 
made peonage an easy system to maintain in 
Mexico. They do not apply much intelligence 
to their work. Scratching the surface of the 
soil with a crooked stick is the perfection of 
ploughing in their estimation. The peon does 
not know and does not care to learn any dif- 
ferent way of doing his work than the one 
taught him by his fathers. The possibility of 
earning more money by the use of labour-sav- 
ing devices does not possess the same attrac- 
tion as for the American labouring man. 

Peonage, which is a mild form of slavery, 
is in force in Mexico. Earning from eighteen 
to fifty cents (silver) wages per day and im- 
provident by nature, it is only natural for the 
peon to want at some time a little more money 



The Peon 1S9 

than that earned. An unscrupulous employer 
can easily involve the poor, ignorant Indian in 
a net of debt. After a while a debt of $50 to 
$100 has accumulated and the worker is in 
bondage until this amount is paid. It is an 
impossible sum for him to save out of his small 
wages, for live he must and support a family, 
which is usually large. The price of freedom 
is the total amount of the debt. Until that is 
paid the law compels him to work for his cred- 
itor, but he is free to get some one else to ad- 
vance this money and change masters. He can- 
not be separated from his family, nor com- 
pelled to leave the plantation on which the debt 
was incurred without his consent. The owner 
may, however, sell the plantation and transfer 
the debt to his successor, and the peon must 
serve the new master under the same condi- 
tions. 

On the immense haciendas of the uplands the 
peons are almost as much of a fixture as the 
buildings themselves. It is a strange adapta- 
tion of the old feudal relation and the idea of 
changing their abode never occurs to them. 
They were born in debt, always remain in that 
condition, and transmit the same burden to 
their posterity. This condition is usually en- 
tered into voluntarily by the Indians, so that 



190 Mexico and Her People To-day 

in the beginning he has only himself to blame. 
An Indian who desires work will apply to the 
manager of a plantation or ranch for a re- 
tainer which seldom exceeds thirty dollars. 
He then signs a contract which binds himself, 
his family and his posterity to work until this 
advance is liquidated. Only a small part of 
the weekly wages may be applied on the debt, 
and it is tacitly understood that the debt may 
be increased after a time. The employer is 
obliged to furnish medical assistance free in 
case of sickness, and to advance the necessary 
fees for marriage, baptisms, confirmations 
and burials. Furthermore, whenever over- 
taken by old age and no longer able to work, 
the peon must be taken care of and furnished 
the necessities of life. 

Holidays, feast-days and saint-days are 
many, and the peon insists on celebrating them 
all. Whether he understands much of the rit- 
ual and doctrines of the Catholic Church or 
not, he understands full well the meaning of a 
feast-day or " fiesta " for on that day he rests 
from his labours. It would not be patriotic 
to work on a national holiday (and they are 
numerous) so he abstains from labour on these 
occasions. Sundays are rest days and it gen- 
erally requires Monday to recuperate from the 



The Peon 191 

effects of the pulque or tequila imbibed on that 
day. Then as each person has a patron saint, 
he insists on celebrating the saint-days of the 
master, mistress and each one of their family, 
of his own family, his father, mother, his wife's 
father and mother, and, last, but not least, his 
own saint-day. Then each marriage, birth 
or death in the family gives occasion for an- 
other off-day. After this list is gone through 
with there remains only about two hundred 
working days for the average labourer. The 
peon is a philosopher. Knowing that it was 
a curse that man should earn his bread by the 
sweat of his brow, he tries to avoid as much 
of the curse as possible. 

The system of peonage or contract labour 
in the tropics is revolting and often inhuman. 
The peon of the hot country is more inde- 
pendent, is fond of social life and is not so 
industrious as his brother in the uplands. 
Hence it becomes necessary to transport hun- 
dreds of labourers for work on tropical plan- 
tations. These are secured through contract 
agents who make this work a business. These 
agents pick them up over the country and de- 
liver them in hundred lots to the plantation 
managers. The contractor advances from 
thirty to fifty dollars in silver to each labourer, 



192 Mexico and Her People To-day 

and this amount together with his own fee, is 
then charged up against the peon who has con- 
tracted to work six months at perhaps fifty 
cents per day in the same white metal. The 
plantation manager binds himself to furnish 
rations, which usually consist of little more 
than tortillas (unleavened corn cakes), beans 
and rice and a little meat for Sunday, and a 
big palm hut will furnish accommodation for 
fifty or more men. But little space is allowed 
each worker, and here he spends all his time 
when not at work, for these contract men are, 
on many plantations, kept under guard night 
and day by armed overseers. Many of these 
poor fellows come from cities on the plateaus 
and soon fall a victim to tropical fevers. Many 
are men who have been convicted of petty of- 
fences and sign a labour contract in return for 
the payment of their fines by the contractor's 
agent and consequent release from confine- 
ment. All, however, are treated alike on the 
plantations and are worked under the lash if 
necessary. At the end of the six months, there 
are not many dollars due the poor peon after 
deducting the price of the drinks and cigar- 
ettes which he has purchased at the company's 
store. After drawing his money he is likely 
to make for the first town and drink or gamble 



The Peon 193 

it away. Then, not having funds enough to 
get home, he is again at the mercy of the con- 
tract agent or plantation owner. 

The little brown man with back bent under 
a load has a countenance which is as full of 
rest and patient philosophy as a modern finan- 
cier's face is of care and wrinkles of anxiety. 
It is almost unfair to the simple-minded, pa- 
tient and docile peon of Mexico to speak of 
him as an Indian for he is at once confused 
with the bloodthirsty redskin of the north. He 
is a peaceful, if improvident, character, and 
is a child in nature. He represents cheap la- 
bour and is one of the great attractions that 
brings wealth to Mexico. After a day's work 
he is content to share his little adobe hut with 
the pigs and chickens, and can even find room 
for the chance wayfarer. A family of three or 
four generations, and numbering twenty peo- 
ple, will live in a hut that would not be con- 
sidered a fit habitation for a donkey in the 
north. One American writer who was obliged to 
seek shelter in one of these huts gives an amus- 
ing account of his experience which shows the 
harmony and good-fellowship that exists in 
these households between the human and brute 
members. " I took an account of the stock 
before I turned in, and found there were three 



194 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
dogs, eleven cats, seven children, five men (not 
including five of us), three women and a dozen 
chickens, all sleeping, or trying to sleep, in the 
same room, under the one roof. And when I 
gave up sleeping, or trying to sleep, and wan- 
dered out into the night, I stepped on the pigs 
and startled three or four calves that had been 
sleeping under the porch." So it is not sur- 
prising that a village of fifty huts may contain 
a thousand souls. 

A cigarette given in proper spirit every day 
will more effectually keep his friendship than 
a present of a new suit of clothes. The latter 
will not be remembered long while the former 
keeps the memory ever fresh. They have been 
called the best and the poorest servants in the 
world. A trusted servant is, however, usually 
an honest one. These wholly satisfied people 
with whom our essentials are non-essentials 
rather disprove the theory that modern civili- 
zation is necessary to true happiness. Will 
the peon in the future wearing shoes, eating 
prepared breakfast foods and sleeping in a 
bed, be any happier than he is now barefooted 
and sleeping on a rush mat spread on an 
earthen floor? 

A constantly increasing number of the peon 
class are moving to the industrial centres. 



The Peon 195 

Slowly but surely the leaven is working, and 
the opportunity for better wages is withdraw- 
ing the labourers from the plantations. The 
railroads, the mines and the factories are pay- 
ing much higher wages than formerly pre- 
vailed, and find it difficult to secure sufficient 
labourers. Only the selected men can fill these 
positions for the average peon has not suf- 
ficient intelligence. He has a great imitative 
faculty and can learn a task, but is not a suc- 
cess in an employment that needs the exercise 
of reason and judgment. In many lines of 
work more is accomplished at less expense by 
peons with the rudest methods than by the 
use of the latest labour-saving machinery op- 
erated by peon labourers. Education will no 
doubt work great changes in the lives and hab- 
its of these people, but this will be a slow 
process in this land of " to-morrow." The 
present conditions are interesting to one who 
desires to see how the rest of the world lives, 
and it will be a long time before the peon class 
will change very materially. 

There is one class of the Indian worker that 
deserves more extended mention. This is that 
time-honoured institution called the cargador. 
As you meet him at every place throughout 
Spanish North America it may be interesting 



196 Mexico and Her People To-day 

to the reader to learn something of his his- 
tory and his accomplishments. It is not neces- 
sary to institute a search for the cargador. 
At the station you will be besieged by a small 
army of them and the hotel entrance may be 
blocked by them. When travelling across the 
country there is a never-ending succession of 
these picturesque characters singly and in 
groups. Sometimes the entire family is along. 
In such cases the boys, even down to little tots, 
carry a small package on their backs and the 
wife and girls balance a basket on their heads. 
Perhaps all their earthly belongings are con- 
tained in these various bundles. 

The cargador of Mexico and Central Amer- 
ica claims an ancient and honourable lineage. 
His occupation may be a humble one, but he 
can trace his ancestry back to the followers of 
that haughty Aztec emperor, Montezuma, or 
even to the still older race of the Toltecs. Not 
many years ago almost everything in these 
countries was carried on the backs of carga- 
dors. Even now in the City of Mexico the car- 
gador is an indispensable factor in the carry- 
ing trade, though there are many express and 
transfer companies engaged in that business. 
In the smaller places of Mexico, in the moun- 
tain districts, and in Central America he holds 



The Peon 197 

his old-time prestige and, with the cargo mule, 
monopolizes the carrying business. 

The strength of these little, brown-skinned 
cargadors is wonderful. Short in stature and 
with thin legs and arms they look very insig- 
nificant. They cannot lift a very heavy weight, 
but they can make their fairer- skinned brother 
cry out in astonishment at the load they will 
carry when it is once adjusted on their back. 
The average load for a cargo mule is one hun- 
dred and fifty pounds. A cargador will start 
on a journey of two hundred or more miles 
with such a load and will cover more miles in 
a day over a rough mountain trail than a mule. 
At the station you will see the little cargador 
pick up a heavy trunk that you can scarcely 
move and start off with it at a faster pace than 
you care to walk. They always move in a pe- 
culiar jog-trot, and can usually keep it up for 
a long time. Up and down hill they go at an 
even pace, and will average about six miles 
per hour. For short distances some cargadors 
will carry as great a load as five hundred 
pounds, a seemingly impossible burden for so 
slender a body. 

The strength in the back is a matter of train- 
ing extending over many centuries. The Az- 
tecs had no beasts of burden and the baggage 



198 Mexico and Her People To-day 

of their armies was always carried by carga- 
dors. The Spanish conquerors were obliged 
to adopt the same methods. Now, although 
there are mules and burros in great numbers, 
the cargador is still the great burden bearer 
and takes the place of the fast freight in the 
commerce of those sections away from the rail- 
way lines. A traveller can take his mule and 
send his baggage by a cargador, and the latter 
will reach the same stopping place each night 
and sometimes ahead of the man on the mule. 
Many eargadors carry their loads in a frame, 
supported by a broad leather band across the 
forehead. When thus loaded they cannot turn 
their heads and they do not seem to hear well, 
so that I have feared many times they would 
be run over by the careless drivers. If there 
are several together they trot along in the mid- 
dle of the road in Indian file. If going on a 
long journey they carry along enough tortillas 
for the entire trip, and must always be given 
enough time to make these preparations. Sev- 
eral times a day they will stop and make a fire, 
prepare their coffee, and eat their tortillas and 
fruit if it can be obtained. At night they will 
sleep out in the open air under a porch, if pos- 
sible; if this shelter cannot be had, then they 



The Peon 199 

will lay themselves down to rest under the bril- 
liant starlit canopy of this tropical clime. 

Many of the Indians are very swift runners. 
An instance is told in Guatemala of a runner 
who carried a dispatch one hundred and five 
miles into the interior and returned with an 
answer in thirty-six hours, making the trip 
over mountains and a rough trail at an average 
speed of six miles an hour, including stops 
and delays. It is said that fish caught at Vera 
Cruz in the evening were served at the dinner 
table of Montezuma the following day at his 
capital near the site of the present City of 
Mexico, a distance of nearly three hundred 
miles by road. This was done by a system of 
relay runners stationed about a mile apart, 
and they made almost as fast time as the rail- 
way train to-day. Whether this is true or not 
it is well known that the Aztecs had a wonder- 
ful system of communication. The Spaniards 
were frequently astonished at the rapidity with 
which the news of their movements was spread. 
These runners were trained to great speed and 
endurance from their youth. Hundreds of 
them were in constant use, and the Aztec enir 
perors were kept in communication with all 
parts of their empire. The Aztecs also used 
these runners as spies and they thus took the 



200 Mexico and Her People To-day 

place of scouting parties in present-day cam- 
paigns. 

So it is that these cargadors come and go. 
Each generation is like the last. They are 
happy in that they want but little and that little 
is easily supplied. They are contented because 
they live for to-day and worry not for the mor- 
row. They are satisfied to go through life as 
the bearers of other people 's burdens. 

The poor peons have been the pawns in the 
late revolutionary disturbances. They have 
been at the mercy of every leader. Willingly or 
unwillingly they have been attached to govern- 
mental or revolutionist army. To some of them 
it made little difference, for there was nothing 
else to do, and they were unable to see through 
the schemes or plans of the one or the other. 
They fought bravely, suffered stoically and died 
heroically. Some day, however, the peon will 
come into his own and will boss the country 
where he has been tossed about at will for so 
many centuries. 



CHAPTER XI 

CUSTOMS AND CHARACTEKISTICS 

" A land of lutes and witching tones, 
Of silver, onyx, opal stones ; 
A lazy laiid, wherein all seems 
Enchanted into endless dreams ; 
And never any need they know, 

In Mexico, 

" Of life's unquiet, swift advance, 
But slipped into such gracious trance, 
The restless world speeds on, unfelt. 
Unheeded, as by those who dwelt 
In golden ages, long ago, 

In Mexico." 
— EvALEEN Steht. 

It is always interesting to know how the rest 
of the world lives, but an experience with the 
customs and characteristics of a people im- 
presses travellers in widely different ways. 
Mexico is a land of strange customs and strong 
characteristics which are deeply interesting to 
the sympathetic tourist. ''Oh! the charm of 
the semi-tropical Spanish life! " says F. Hop- 
Mnson Smith. " The balconies above the 

201 



202 Mexico and Her People To-day 

patios trellised with flowers; the swinging 
hammocks, the slow plash of the fountains; 
the odour of jasmine wet with dew; the low 
thrum of guitar and the soft moonlight half- 
revealing the muffled figures in lace and cloak. 
It is the same old story, and yet it seems to 
me it is told in Spanish lands more delightfully 
and with more romance, colour and mystery 
than elsewhere on the globe." On the other 
hand many matter-of-fact, unsympathetic trav- 
ellers see only the impractical ways, annoy- 
ances and inconvenient customs like the writer 
who describes Mexico as "A land of lace and 
lice and love, of flowers and fights and fleas; 
of babies and bull-fights where pillow slips are 
open at both ends and where passengers get 
off the front end of the street-cars ; where keys 
often six inches in length are fitted in keyholes 
turned upside down and invariably turned 
backward ; where the weather forgets to change 
from day to day and people sleep under the 
same bed cover the year around. ' ' 

The Mexican has learned the secret of daily 
contentment. This is true generally of the 
Creole class as well as of the peon. The fact 
that some seven thousand families practically 
own the entire landed estate of the country 
does not inspire envy in the bosoms of the other 



Customs and Characteristics 203 

millions. It is a question whether the Anglo- 
Saxon and the Teuton can give these people 
more than mere mechanical contrivances. 
Home does not necessarily consist in an open 
fire, drawn curtains and frequent visits of 
curious neighbours. Here homes are found 
where privacy is respected, family affection is 
strong and there is respect for elders, love for 
parents and kindly relations between masters 
and servants. Such a country is not uncivi- 
lized and barbarous. There may be many odd 
and nonsensical customs but a reason can gen- 
erally be found for them. Whqn studying the 
natives it is enough to know that they are '' an 
unselfish, patient, tender-hearted people; . a 
people maintaining in their every-day life an 
etiquette phenomenal in a down-trodden race; 
offering instantly to the stranger and way- 
farer on the very threshold of their adobe huts 
a hospitality so generous, accompanied by a 
courtesy so exquisite, that one stops at the next 
doorway to re-enjoy the luxury." 

If one has absolutely nothing to do or suf- 
fers from the constitutional ailment of having 
been born tired, Mexico is the place for him 
to rest. Nor will he be lonesome in the occu- 
pation of loafing for on every bench is a way- 
farer for company. There is no Mexicanism 



204 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
more pronounced than that of procrastination. 
Never do to-day what can be put off until to- 
morrow is the revised motto. Nothing is so 
important that it cannot wait until manana 
(to-morrow). An American, whom I met in 
Mexico, and who had lived there a number of 
years characterized the country as the land of 
manana, esperase and poco tiempo, or the land 
of ^' to-morrow " and '^ wait-a-while. " Time 
is idled away. Nobody expects you to be punc- 
tual and you are not censured should you fail 
to keep an engagement. In fact, '' you will 
probably be designated as a bore should you 
insist on scrupulously and punctually keeping 
all your appointments, for the man who always 
meets you on the dot is a nuisance in this south- 
ern land. If you have an appointment with 
a Mexican at noon, go at four o'clock in the 
afternoon and you will probably find him wait- 
ing for you. Had you gone on time, he might 
have been absent. Never be in a hurry, for 
constant hustle and bustle are the unpardon- 
able sins. Eespect the native customs and doze 
or read for a couple of hours after lunch and 
get busy as the sun nears the horizon." The 
Mexican pays a compliment to Anglo-Saxon 
push by adding a la Inglesa to an appoint- 
ment which is intended to be kept punctually 



Customs and Characteristics 205 

or " after the English fashion." It is impos- 
sible to educate the Mexican to American 
methods, so it behooves the foreigner who goes 
to Mexico to make np his mind to do business 
after the standards of that country. However 
lax or disappointing they may be he must re- 
member that in Mexico his methods are the 
strange ones and not theirs, which are cen- 
turies old. In society calls lengthen to visits 
and last hours and the hurried five-minute calls 
are happily unknown. The longer the stay, the 
greater the compliment for it means that the 
visitor is enjoying herself. 

In a country where, until recently, the pur- 
chase of a foreign draft was an all-day opera- 
tion one cannot expect to do business in a very 
strenuous way. The people have breathed the 
somnolent atmosphere so long that they cannot 
be hurried. In fact, in some of the towns, the 
buzzards that encircle the town seem to be the 
only living creatures actually looking for some- 
thing to do, for even the dogs would sneak 
down the alley to avoid trouble. And yet in 
the face of all this the Yankee drummer arrives 
in a town and scarcely takes time to brush the 
dust of travel from his clothes before he starts 
out to visit his prospective customers. He ex- 
pects to round up his orders and take the train 



206 Mexico and Her People To-day 

on the following morning for the next town. 
After running against a few mananas from 
day to day without an opportunity to show his 
goods he feels about as disgusted as the enter- 
prising American who, intending to revolution- 
ize agriculture, took down a large stock of the 
latest American farming implements, but after 
a year's effort had made no sale. The sales- 
man who will succeed is not the one who tries 
to introduce the hurry-up methods of his own 
land, but the one who adapts himself to the 
country and does not attempt to rush things. 
It will require days and perhaps weeks to work 
a large city. 

I met an Englishman in one of these large 
Spanish-American towns who was a fair ex- 
ample of the successful European drummer. 
He had made this route for years and was thor- 
oughly conversant with the language and un- 
derstood the ways of the people. His methods 
were a good illustration of the reason why 
English and German houses have for many 
decades controlled trade in Spanish America. 
They keep their old men on the route as long 
as possible, for a new man will not do much 
on his first trip. We stopped at the same 
hotel and I had a good opportunity of observ- 
ing his business methods. For several days 



Customs and Characteristics 207 

after arriving in the town he did nothing but 
make social calls on his customers, take them 
to the theatre and entertain them in a general 
way. During the next few days he invited them 
to his rooms to inspect his stock which was 
large and varied. Then he began to take or- 
ders. This method seems like a waste of time 
but the orders secured were large and well 
repaid for the time taken. The American 
drummer could not have controlled his impa- 
tience to be on the move and would have made 
a failure. Many who drop into Mexico on a 
flying trip, jump to the conclusion that the 
Mexican merchant is not so shrewd a business 
man as the American. They are apt to mistake 
the deliberate methods of the Latin race for 
poor methods. He consumes more time in 
placing his order and there is less rush and 
bustle about his store, but an experienced man 
will tell you that in the end he drives a pretty 
hard bargain for he knows the market price 
of the goods and wants the best discounts and 
longest credit. 

^ . Even the legal customs are peculiar and have 
proven decidedly embarrassing to many Amer- 
icans. A number of years ago, before rail- 
roads were so numerous, the local officers al- 
ways arrested the engineer and conductor in 



208 Mexico and Her People To-day 

the event that any one was killed, and they 
were thrust into jail '' incommunicado." This 
means that you are to be incarcerated seventy- 
two hours in solitary confinement without bail, 
at the end of which time a judicial examina- 
tion is given. An American whom I met there 
told me of his " incommunicado " experience. 
He was arrested because he had witnessed an 
affray and was held as witness, in solitary con- 
finement, but was released by the official after 
the judicious use of thirty dollars. Their the- 
ory is that after a man has been kept in con- 
finement for three days, with only his own 
thoughts for company, he is much more likely 
to tell the truth than if he had been in com- 
munication with his lawyers, friends and the 
reporters all that time. And who can deny the 
truth of their claim? 

It is always best to keep out of the neigh- 
bourhood of trouble, or get out of it as quickly 
as you can if it comes your way, especially if 
in the remote districts, for offender and vic- 
tim are both liable to arrest and imprisonment. 
Most cases are put off from day to day until 
one party or the other is weary of the proceed- 
ing. An instance which illustrates this was 
related to me by a man who was arrested for 
misdemeanour. Knowing the custom prevalent 



Customs and Characteristics 209 

in the courts he hired an attorney to appear 
each day for him. When the case was called 
the judge would ask '' Que quiere " (what do 
you want). After the case was explained he 
would dispose of it with the simple word ma- 
nana. The other man appeared each day until 
disgusted with the procedure and then dropped 
the matter. Lawyers charge so much per word 
and are paid for each article as it is written. 
Mexican notaries are very important person- 
ages. They take the place to a great degree 
of the old-fashioned, family lawyer. They are 
regarded in much the same light as the family 
confessor and are told the family secrets. To 
their credit, be it said, that the notary is usu- 
ally a man worthy of the confidence placed in 
him. 

The ceremonial and punctilious politeness of 
the Mexican, be he Don or peon, is interesting 
and oftentimes amusing. The Spaniard on 
meeting a friend on the street will stop and 
inquire one by one after the health of his wife, 
each of his children and the various other mem- 
bers of his household and then in turn will sub- 
mit to the same interrogations from his friend. 
After witnessing such a scene between two men 
in silk hats you can turn down a side street and 
see a meeting between a poor Indian in rags 



210 Mexico and Her People To-day 

and an old withered woman selling lottery 
tickets. Removing his tattered sombrero he 
bows gravely, and, in the softest of Spanish, 
says, ''A los pies de usted, senora " (at your 
feet, lady). This is done with a grace and ease 
of manner worthy of any station in life; and 
her answer '' My hands are for your kisses, 
senor," is said in the same gracious way 
worthy of a duchess. Should you ask the man 
for his name he would be sure to add " Su 
criado de usted " (your servant). 

The Mexicans are very proud and exclusive, 
and suspicious of the newcomer. Seldom in- 
deed is it that an American gains the entree 
into their homes but, if he succeeds, they will 
be found among the most charming hosts in 
the world. This reserve is probably very nat- 
ural. The Mexican has been educated in the 
strict Catholic schools and is a victim of cus- 
tom old as his country, while the American 
coming to Mexico is a mercenary, ambitious 
person engaged in commercial strife and in the 
race for the almighty dollar. Then, the Amer- 
ican is of a more matter-of-fact temperament 
and does not appreciate the impulsive nature 
of the Mexican. Money does not appeal to him 
except for the pleasure of spending it, and no 
person is more lavish in the expenditure of 



Customs and Characteristics 211 

money, if he- has it, than a Mexican gentle- 
man. 

The Mexican is a home lover and yet there 
is no word in the Spanish language that corre- 
sponds to onr word for home. Casa, or house, 
is the nearest to it and the Mexican always 
speaks of his house when he means his home. 
The exaggerated conventionalities are often 
carried to the verge of the absurd. Perhaps 
there may be as much truth in their expres- 
sions as in the polite but oftentimes meaning- 
less civilities of our own land. An American, 
on being introduced to a stranger, will feel 
that he has satisfied the etiquette of the occa- 
sion by simply expressing his pleasure in the 
acquaintance. The Mexican goes a step fur- 
ther and presents the newly-made acquaint- 
ance with his house. 

'' Su casa es numero /' he says with a 

graceful bow giving the street and number of 
his own house, which literally means ** your 

house is number ," and usually adds, '' It 

is entirely at your disposal; make yourself at 
home." It is simply a polite way of saying 
** I am glad to meet you," Perhaps five min- 
utes later the incident is forgotten by the giver. 
One writer has said that he met fourteen men 
at a club in Mexico and was presented with 



212 Mexico and Her People To-day 

thirteen houses. The fourteenth man was un- 
married and not a householder. Occasionally- 
some one not familiar with the emptiness of 
the phrase has presumed on its literal inter- 
pretation and called at one of the houses pre- 
sented to him but has been turned away with- 
out the least sign of recognition. 

If one expresses admiration for some article 
worn by another, he is quickly informed that 
the article is ' ' at his disposal. ' ' If you happen 
upon a Mexican at the dining hour, he will 
probably offer you his dinner. If you decline 
it, the occasion requires that you should do 
so with polite wishes for his digestion. These 
forms of hospitality are derived from Spanish 
ancestors and were by them probably copied 
from the Moors, after the open hand and open 
tent customs of the sons of the desert who 
meant these expressions literally. It has an 
empty meaning now, for nothing is left but 
the words. With all this seeming inconsistency 
and insincerity, the Mexicans are exceedingly 
kind hearted and will willingly do favours if 
approached in the right way ; no service is too • 
great towards those for whom they have 
formed an attachment. They will often accom- 
pany the departing guest for a long distance 



Customs and Characteristics 213 

over hard roads as a mark of courtesy and 
friendship. 

We are all victims of habit more or less. 
But, whereas the American welcomes innova- 
tions and adapts his habits to them, or forms 
new ones, the Mexican does not want any 
change from the customs of his ancestors. The 
expression '' no es costumhre," meaning it is 
not the custom, is a final and decisive answer 
that does not admit of argument. You might 
as well try to change the colour of the native 
as his habits. Americans who keep Mexican 
servants are for ever running contrary to the 
customs or prejudices of their help. For in- 
stance an American woman ^ who lived here a 
number of years relates the trouble she had to 
induce her servant to use a cook stove which 
she had imported from the United States. She 
refused because '^ it would give her disease of 
the liver." In all seriousness she believed that 
such would be the result and nothing could 
induce her to have anything to do with the 
new-fangled thing. A peripatetic merchant 
came around selling eggs at six for a real. He 
refused to sell two dozen for four reals because 
"no es costumhre/' as eggs are always sold 
at six for a real, an incontrovertible argument. 

* Mrs. Gooch in "Face to Face with the Mexicans." 



214 Mexico and Her People To-day 

A household will have difficulty in getting 
along with only one servant for it is customary 
to employ three or four in a small family and 
from twenty to forty in a large house. Each 
servant will do his or her own particular work 
cheerfully and will move about so lightly and 
airily that you hardly know any one is around. 
However, ask the man mozo to scrub the jfloor, 
or the cook to make the beds, and you will see 
a regretful look of the eye and be met with 
the ready answer, "no es costumbre." Mar- 
keting is a right jealously guarded too, for 
es costumbre (it is the custom) and one of the 
perquisites of the man servant, since he re- 
ceives a small fee from each person of whom 
purchases are made. The Indian servants are 
not accustomed to beds and want nothing but 
a mat to sleep upon. The traveller can see 
these in the halls at the hotel if he comes in 
a little late. Here these dusky natives sleep 
more soundly than do most Americans on the 
most luxurious of beds. An American lady 
in Oaxaca took pity on her girl servant and 
bought a comfortable iron bed for her to oc- 
cupy. She then explained to her how the bed 
was used. Several days later she asked the 
servant how she liked her bed. The girl said 
it was fine — to lay her clothes on. The 




MAKING TORTILLAS 



Customs and Characteristics 215 

American woman finally gave up trying to 
change the habits of her maid. Servants be- 
come very devoted to their employers and their 
attachment is sometimes embarrassing. In 
case of a death in the family they immediately 
don black and mourn as though the lost one 
was a near relative of their own. 

The economy of housekeeping and especially 
of the kitchen, even among the rich, is remark- 
able. The Indian or Mestiza women rule here 
and the customs of a thousand years ago are 
the customs of to-day. The tortillas, cakes 
made of maize, are the bread of the country. 
For centuries these dusky women of Mexico 
have ground the corn for their daily bread 
between two stones, the grains having first been 
soaked for several hours in a solution of lime 
water. This smoothed, dished-out stone is 
called a metate, an Aztec word, and the women 
work for hours in beating the softened grains 
to a fine paste. Small pieces of the dough are 
then worked between the hands, tossed and 
patted, and flattened out until very thin. After 
this they are thrown upon a flat, iron griddle 
over a charcoal fire. They are never allowed 
to brown and are without salt or seasoning of 
any kind. After becoming used to them they 



216 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
prove very palatable and many prefer them 
to the ordinary corn bread. 

Frijoles, or beans, and generally black ones, 
are also invariably served and are eaten twice 
every day without intermission on the table of 
rich or poor. The chili, a pretty hot sort of 
pepper, is a favourite dish that had better be 
avoided by the Americans, for the ability to 
relish it can only be approached by degrees. 
Tamales are relished by the Mexican and can 
be found for sale in almost any of the markets. 
I never see tamales without thinking of the 
description given of them by a big Texan in his 
bread dialect, in answer to a question from me 
as the train was speeding across the mesquit 
prairies near San Antonio. " You take cawn 
meal, some hawt (heart), livah and a little pep- 
pah and you make a tamable, suh." 

The use of sacred names or names of great 
personages among these people is often aston- 
ishing. The names of Porfirio Diaz, Juarez 
and Hidalgo are as numerous as the George 
Washingtons among the negroes of the south. 
However, when the American stumbles upon a 
Pius Fifth, St. John the Evangelist or even 
Jesus, in a dirty-face brown man clothed in 
rags, it seems a strange incongruity. Talk 
with this humble bearer of a sacred name or 



Customs and Characteristics 217 

offer him a gratuity, and, as you depart, he will 
say, " Vaya usted con Dios " (go, and God be 
with you), in such a simple and benign iBanner 
that you almost feel as though a benediction 
were following you. 

We are told by the early writers that the 
Aztecs had few stores, but that nearly all the 
trading was done in the markets which were 
found in every city, or by the great merchant 
princes who traversed the country with their 
large army of burden-bearers and retainers, 
compelling trade as well as seeking it. It is 
interesting to note the description of the mar- 
ket in the capital in the time of Cortez written 
by Bernal Diaz, one of his followers, and the 
historian of his expedition. He expresses his 
astonishment at the great crowds of people, 
the regularity which prevailed and the vast 
quantities of merchandise on display. '^ The 
articles consisted of gold, silver, jewels, feath- 
ers, mantles, chocolate, skins dressed and un- 
dressed, sandals, and great numbers of male 
and female slaves, some of whom were fastened 
by the neck, in collars, to long poles. The meat 
market was stocked with fowls, game and dogs. 
Vegetables, fruits, articles of food ready 
dressed, salt, bread, honey and sweet pastry 
made in various ways, were also sold here. 



218 Mexico and Her People To-day 

Other places in the square were appointed to 
the sale of earthen ware, wooden household 
furniture such as tables and benches, firewood, 
pipes, sweet canes filled with tobacco mixed 
with liquidamber, copper axes and working 
tools, and wooden vessels highly painted. 
Numbers of women sold fish and little loaves 
made of a certain mud which they find in the 
lakes, and which resembles cheese. The en- 
tire square was enclosed in piazzas under which 
great quantities of grain were stored and where 
were also shops for various kinds of goods." 

This description would answer very well to- 
day except as to slaves and feathers. It is to 
be regretted that the beautiful feather work 
of that race is a lost art. The market of the 
capital is located but a short distance from the 
plaza and is an excellent place to study life. 
The outer portion is occupied by small shops 
covered with protecting piazzas but the central 
part is wholly occupied by the Indian mer- 
chants. During the morning hours it is so 
closely packed that it is almost impossible to 
force one's way through the dense throng of 
humanity. The native, squatted on the ground 
on a rush mat, with another mat suspended 
over him for protection from the fierce sun, and 
his stock in trade spread before him, is a pic- 



Customs and Characteristics 219 



ture worth studying. Many tribes are repre- 
sented, as their dress indicates, as well as the 
products of many different zones from the 
cocoanut of the hot lands to the inferior pears 
of the cold zone. The pottery from Guadala- 
jara can be distinguished from that of Guada- 
lupe or Aguas Calientes by its colour and 
design. Each piece might tell a history of an 
art passed down from father to son for count- 
less generations, for the son usually follows 
the occupation of his father. They never think 
of changing method of manufacture or design. 
It is quite probable that the pottery seen in 
the market to-day is the same as that viewed 
by Cortez. Many of the vessels are curious 
and fantastic in form but always ornamental 
in decoration. When one considers that much 
of this pottery is made with no tools but pieces 
of broken glass and a horsehair, the result is 
a marvel. With the hair they trim the top 
and with the glass smooth off the rough places. 
The pottery market is an important one, for 
articles used in the kitchen and on the tables 
of the poorer classes are exclusively of this 
ware. For a small sum an entire kitchen out- 
fit can be purchased. 

There are few Jewish merchants in Mexico 
for the Mexican is even more persuasive in 



220 Mexico and Her People To-day 

his mode of selling and Ms prices are fully as 
elastic. In purchasing native articles on dif- 
ferent occasions I tried several dealers in order 
to discover whether they had a uniform bot- 
tom price. They would invariably ask at least 
twice as much as they were willing to accept. 
I found that if one would only show surprise 
at the price asked, the question " What will 
you give " would immediately follow. They 
were perfectly willing to get as much from you 
as possible but the lowest price quoted by the 
various dealers was almost identical. Some 
persons have facetiously characterized Mex- 
ico as the land of '' ^o hay " (pronounced eye) 
because it is such a common answer in market- 
ing and means '' there is none." In fact, the 
answer will always be "^ ^o hay " or " si, hay " 
(yes, I have). 

There are many quaint and curious charac- 
ters that one will find around the market place. 
The candy man, or, boy, moves around with 
noiseless tread crying his wares in a song 
which never varies any more than his stock, 
which is always the same and arranged in ex- 
actly the same way. His dulces, however, have 
merit and it is not necessary to change any- 
thing already good. The evangelista, or let- 
ter writer, is here with a jug of ink and pen on a 




CANDY HOY AND GIRL 



Customs and Characteristics 221 



little table ready to write a business letter, or 
a billet doux flaming with passion and extrav- 
agant phrases for the unlettered lover. On 
the corners of the street may be seen the cob- 
blers ready to cut and fit sandals " while you 
wait." His whole stock in trade consists of a 
pile of scraps of sole leather and some leather 
thongs, while his only tool is a curved, sharp 
knife. 

In and out of the crowd the faithful agua- 
dor, or water-carrier, winds his way bringing 
the refreshing water to thirsty mortals. He is 
not only a very necessary person in this land 
of little rain, but is a person of importance 
and knows the inner life of the household of 
his customers. His costume and water vessels 
vary in the different cities but he is the same 
honest character who ingeniously carries the 
love messages from the '' bear " to his inamo- 
rata. After a morning of hard work his faith- 
ful wife brings his dinner of tortillas and fri- 
joles to the fountain or well, and there he sits 
and eats his humble meal while she watches 
her lord and master until he has finished. 
Later in the day, tiring of his work or feeling 
the burden of prosperity as his stock of copper 
coins increases, he resorts to the pulque-shop 
and there shows his contempt for the beverage 



222 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
he has been distributing by imbibing large 
quantities of his favourite liquor. 

Perhaps in no way is the general supersti- 
tion and ignorance of the Indian shown to bet- 
ter advantage than in their ideas of disease 
and medicine. The curandera, usually a 
woman, admits having great knowledge of 
anatomy and chemistry, and has a pharma- 
copoeia all her own. The accounts given here 
are vouched for by a writer in Modern Mexico 
who is a native of the country, understands 
these people and is entitled to belief. Aire 
(air), when introduced into the system through 
blows or unusually forcible sneezing, causes 
swellings, sore eyes and nervous tremblings. 
It is treated with plasters and bandages and 
lotions. When the alimentary canal is ob- 
structed it is empacho, which means that un- 
digested food has adhered to the stomach or 
the food has formed into balls and marbles 
that rattle around inside the stomach or intes- 
tines. This disease demands immediate and 
heroic treatment, and a drop of quicksilver 
swallowed at a gulp is prescribed and will gen- 
erally dislodge it or kill the patient. Tiricia 
is indicated by homesickness, melancholia or 
insomnia, and is caused by a subtle vapour 
produced by the action of the moon on the dew 



Customs and Characteristics 223 

and is absorbed through the pores. Change of 
climate, good company and tonics are a sensi- 
ble prescription. Mai de ojo, or the evil eye, 
causes the sufferer to fade away or die of in- 
anition, and is a common disease of children. 
Bright attractive objects are hung up to draw 
away the attention of the " evil eye." If a 
child is slow in talking, a diet of boiled swal- 
lows is prescribed. One writer positively as- 
serts that blue and red beads ground fine and 
mixed in equal portions have been given to 
persons suffering with paralysis, and the suf- 
ferers survived the treatment. The curandera 
is also called upon to mix love potions and 
poisons that will cause delirium or even insan- 
ity and death. 

Another instance is told in the same period- 
ical of a- woman who was very sick with a 
disease from the effects of which she was prac- 
tically helpless. A curandera had told the hus- 
band to get a white turkey and tie it in the 
house and his wife would get well. When the 
turkey had failed to cure her an old man cu- 
randero was procured, who promised to make 
her well if supplied with plenty of aguardiente 
(brandy). Four dollars worth was supplied 
him, and four dollars will buy a great deal of 
poor brandy in Mexico. The old man laid him- 



224 Mexico and Her People To-day 

self down on the ground, after filling himself 
up with the fire-water, pounded his head and 
kept repeating weird incantations which could 
be heard a long distance away. This was con- 
tinued for several days until the supply of 
spirits gave out. In the meantime the patient 
had improved somewhat and could use her 
arms and body as far as the waist. The shrewd 
old man shrugged his shoulders and said, '' I 
have cured her as far as I can. You will have 
to get a curandera to complete the cure." The 
poor woman soon died, because, as the husband 
declared, she had been bewitched. 



CHAPTER XII 

HOLIDAYS AND HOLY -DAYS 

It is impossible to understand Mexico or the 
Mexicans without knowing something of their 
feasts and festivals which play such a large 
part in the life of these people. In fact there 
is very little of the social life in Mexico that 
is not the outgrowth of or intimately connected 
with the holy-days of the Church. The saint's 
day of each member, that is the day in the 
church calendar devoted to the saint after 
whom the person is named, takes the place of 
the birthday for gifts and family celebrations. 
The fiestas, or feast-days, of the church are 
very numerous and are pretty well observed, 
although business is not entirely suspended. 
The church holidays are either different from 
those in other Catholic countries or are ob- 
served in a truly national way in Mexico. 

To one who enjoys mixing with the common 
people and learning their customs, habits and 
ways of thinking, in other words, endeavouring 

226 



226 Mexico and Her People To-day 

to get into their real, inner life, it is a per- 
petual delight to visit the cities and villages 
on the fiesta occasions and mingle with the peo- 
ple in their celebration. This association with 
a free-hearted, pleasure-loving people on their 
gala days unconsciously broadens the views of 
a traveller in a new country, and develops a 
sympathy which can be awakened in no other 
way. The crowds jostle each other good na- 
turedly and will treat the stranger with respect. 
Too many visitors to this country try to judge 
everything from the American standard and 
find little to commend. They should remember 
that Mexico is Oriental rather than Anglo- 
Saxon, and that the Spanish-Moorish civiliza- 
tion is here blended with the Aztec. Such a 
civilization cannot be without merit and it must 
have some inherent good qualities. If one 
wants to understand a country rightly, he must 
first try to enter into the lives of the people 
and then look at life from their point of view. 
It would be impossible within the limits pre- 
scribed to describe all the celebrations in hon- 
our of the hundreds of saints and the numer- 
ous secular holidays. A description of a few 
of these occasions, most generally observed,, 
will give the reader a good idea of the nature 
of all. 



Holidays and Holy-days 227 

Christmas celebrations in Mexico are very- 
much different from those in the United States. 
There is no merry jingle of the sleigh bells in 
this land of Christmas sunshine and skies as 
blue as those of Naples ; and there are no plans 
dependent upon whether the day may chance 
to be white or green. The few lofty volcanic 
peaks, on which alone snow is ever seen, would 
not tempt the most enthusiastic tobogganist. 
As there are no chimneys, the children need 
not sit up at night until sleep overtakes them, 
to see Santa Claus descend with his heavy pack 
filled with the things that boys and girls like. 
Even the time honoured custom of hanging 
up stockings is unknown to Mexican children. 
Perhaps they enjoy themselves quite as much 
after their own fashion as we do after ours. 
They have good things to eat, and the beautiful 
flowers are so cheap that no matter how humble 
the Mexican home may be, it affords a few 
sprays of the scarlet Noche Bueno, the beauti- 
ful Christmas plant. Their celebrations are 
long continued for they begin nine days before 
Christmas and last until the Feast of the 
Epiphany on the 6th of January; and this 
entire time is one long delightful jubilee. 

These celebrations, which begin on the six- 
teenth of December and continue until the 



228 Mexico and Her People To-day 

twenty-fifth, are called posadas. The word in 
Spanish means an " inn," or abiding place, 
and while the celebration, in its origin, was 
distinctly religious, it is now only semi-relig- 
ious, and has become an extremely gay and 
sociable occasion. The posadas are limited to 
the cities but, in those places, the poorest as 
well as the richest families hold them and they 
are a celebration peculiar to this country. 

The origin of the posada is in the gospel 
narrative of the Nativity. Because Caesar had 
issued the decree that all the world should be 
taxed, Mary and Joseph came to Bethlehem to 
be enrolled. Mary made the journey mounted 
upon an ass which Joseph led. As the shadows 
of the night descended, they were obliged to ask 
for shelter, and it is no wonder that the request 
was not always granted readily and willingly, 
but was many times refused during the trip 
that is supposed to have taken nine days. 

On the last day, having arrived at Bethle- 
hem, and because the city was so full of people, 
they wandered about for a long time without 
finding admittance to either private house or 
inn. At last, being tired and weary, and be- 
cause no room could be secured, they took ref- 
uge in a stable where Christ was born. There- 
fore, it is, that in order to celebrate this jour- 



Holidays and Holy-days 229 

ney fully, the posadas begin with the journey 
at Nazareth. Each year a house is chosen in 
a family circle, or among a group of friends, 
and at that house for nine consecutive nights the 
festival is held. Or, sometimes, the celebration 
will be held at different houses during that 
period. 

The journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem 
and the difficulties encountered on the way, are 
represented by the first part of the celebration. 
At the appointed hour the guests assemble at 
the house which has been chosen for the celebra- 
tion on that particular night. Each person 
present, members of the family, guests and 
servants, is furnished with a lighted candle, and 
two and two, they march around the halls and 
through the corridors several times chanting 
the solemn '' Litany of Loretto." As each in- 
vocation is ended the audience chant " ora pro 
nobis" ('' pray for us "). At the head of the 
procession the figures of Joseph and Mary made 
of clay or wax, dressed in gay, incongruously- 
coloured satins are borne either in the hands or 
lying in a basket. Sometimes these figures are 
dressed in brilliant costumes of lace with tin- 
selled borderings. At each door the procession 
pauses and knocks and begs admittance, but no 
answer or invitation to enter is given. LWhen 



230 Mexico and Her People To-day 

the litany is finished some of the party enter a 
room while the rest with the figures of Joseph 
and Mary remain outside and sing a chant some- 
thing like the following : — 

« In Heaven's Name, 
I beg for shelter ; 
My wife to-night, 
Can go no further." 

The reply to this is : — 

" No inn is this. 
Begone from hence ; 
Ye may be thieves, 
I trust ye not." 

At last, however, the door is opened and all 
go in and Joseph and Mary have secured shelter 
for the night. The pilgrims are placed on an 
improvised altar and some prayers are recited, 
though the religious exercises are generally 
hurried through in the quickest manner possi- 
ble. Sometimes, to make the scene more real- 
istic, a burro is introduced in the procession to 
represent the faithful animal that carried the 
holy family in their wanderings. Frequently, 
on the last night, in a room, or on the roof, a 
kind of stable is arranged in which the figures 
of Joseph and Mary are placed with the utmost 



Holidays and Holy-days 231 

reverence. On this night a figure of the infant 
Jesus is also carried. After the litany the party- 
proceed to have a general good time which is 
kept up until a late hour. Occasionally, in the 
homes of the wealthy, these entertainments are 
on a very elaborate scale and costly souvenirs 
are presented to each guest. Everywhere in the 
cities is heard the litany of the posada, for it 
is celebrated almost universally. It is sung in 
hundreds and thousands of homes and the pro- 
cessions wind in and out of the rooms and round 
the improvised shrines. The patios are hung 
with Venetian lights, and fireworks blaze sky- 
ward in every direction. In the City of Mexico 
the posadas are most elaborate among the offi- 
cial and wealthy families, and the Zocalo plaza 
is a bewitching place with its many lights and 
the multitudes of children who gather here for 
celebration. The clergy are now censuring the 
*' posadas '' because of the irreverent spirit in 
which they are celebrated. 

In Mexico the pinate takes the place of the 
Christmas tree. It is an oval shaped, earthen 
jar, handsomely decorated with tinsel and 
streamers of tissue paper, made up to represent 
curious figures. They represent clowns, ballet 
girls, monkeys, roosters, various grotesque 
animals, and even children almost life sized. 



232 Mexico and Her People To-day 

The jars are crammed full of sweets, rattles, 
whistles and crackers. The breaking of the 
pinate follows the litany and is an exciting 
event, which generally occurs in the patio. It 
is suspended from the ceiling and then each 
person desiring to take part is blindfolded in 
turn, and, armed with a pole, proceeds to strike 
the swinging pinate. Three trials are permitted. 
Sometimes many are blindfolded before a suc- 
cessful blow brings the sweets and bon-bons 
rattling to the floor. Then there is a race and 
a scramble for the dainties. Thousands of these 
pinates are broken each Christmas season and 
the vendors of them perambulating the streets 
with a pole across the shoulders on which are 
suspended the grotesque figures, add life and 
zest to the season. Then to see a well dressed, 
sedate-looking, business man hurrying home 
with a grotesque tissue-paper creation of 
gorgeous hues with tinselled decorations and 
gay streamers under his arms is a curious but 
not uncommon sight. 

Holy week, as the week preceding Easter is 
called, is celebrated in an elaborate and truly 
original way. The religious processions which 
formerly attended these celebrations are now 
prohibited by law. During these few days the 
bells, organs and choirs are silent, the stores are 




BURNING AN EFFIGY OF JUDAS AT EASTER -TIME 



Holidays and Holy-days 233 

closed and there is a general holiday. As an 
evidence that vanity is not entirely absent, on 
Holy Thursday it is customary for men and 
women to turn out in good clothes and many of 
the ladies appear in handsome and elaborate 
gowns. Then on Good Friday everything is 
changed and the whole country mourns. Sombre 
black takes the place of the more brilliant 
raiment of the preceding day; downcast eyes 
and solemn faces succeed the smiles and coquet- 
tish glances of yesterday. 

On Saturday occurs the most grotesque and 
curious of all the festivals of the Church. It is 
the day on which final disposition is made of 
that arch-traitor Judas Iscariot, and the day 
is devoted to his humiliation and death. Effigies 
of the traitor are hung over the streets every- 
where and all day long men parade the streets 
with figures of the betrayer of Christ upon 
poles. These effigies range in size from minia- 
ture figures to those of gigantic proportions. 
Each figure is made of papier macJie, is filled 
with explosives and has a fuse which is gen- 
erally the moustache. Hundreds of the images 
are sold to the children in each city who explode 
them with great glee. Judas is represented 
with folded hands, arms akimbo, with legs in 
running posture and in every conceivable atti- 



234 Mexico and Her People To-day 

tude. Some of them bear suggestive mottoes 
such as '' I am a scion of the Devil " and '* Let 
me give up the Ghost. ' ' Each person must des- 
troy a Judas. 

At ten o'clock as the great bells of the cathe- 
dral in the City of Mexico sound and other 
bells follow, the fuses to these effigies are 
lighted. The great Judases strung across the 
streets or tied to balconies are exploded amid 
great rejoicing. Coins representing the thirty 
pieces of silver paid to Judas are sometimes 
thrown to the crowd from the windows of 
wealthy residents or clubs. Every one grows 
wild and the little folks become almost beside 
themselves with excitement. The bells in the 
towers ring out their rejoicings and a peculiar 
apparatus gives out a sound which represents 
the breaking of the bones of the thieves on the 
cross. The crowds also have innumerable rat- 
tles which make a hideous, grating sound in- 
tended to represent the same incident. The 
noise of the bells, the explosion of the fire- 
crackers, and the shouts of the multitude form 
a strange, exciting, ludicrous scene never to be 
forgotten. When the last Judas has been de- 
molished, the excitement subsides and a good- 
natured frolic follows. 

The national holidays, of which there are 



Holidays and Holy-days 235 

many, are greatly overshadowed by those per- 
taining to the Church, and none of them are so 
universally observed. Not all the feasts and 
festivals of Mexico are of Romish origin. Some 
of them are founded upon the remains of Aztec 
idolatry, for the priests of the early days with 
a wise foresight adopted the same day for feast- 
days in many instances. Though these Indians 
probably could not tell why, yet they have a 
great reverence for the saints whom they wor- 
ship after their own fashion. They are de- 
lighted to have more occasions for decorating 
themselves and their churches with flowers, 
marching in processions, dancing and letting 
off rockets. 

The Fiesta de las Flo res, or Feast of the 
Poppies, celebrated in April, is held on the Viga 
Canal and was originally a day devoted to the 
worship of the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl, the god 
of nature with them. On that day the bloody, 
sacrificial rites were suspended and all joined in 
this festival of flowers. This fiesta has lost all 
its religious significance but it is said to be 
celebrated much the same as in Aztec times, 
All day long the canal is filled with boats large 
and small manned by the dusky natives. Indian 
women and nut-brown maids with wreaths of 
poppies on their heads and garlands of the same 



236 Mexico and Her People To-day 

around their necks, sing the songs of the people 
and dance as they move along. On the shore 
and in the boats the native bands play, and the 
broad highway along the banks of the Viga is 
crowded with long lines of carriages filled with 
the aristocracy of the Capital who have come 
out to witness this unique celebration. 

Mexico, like each good Mexican Catholic, has 
a patron saint who presides over her destinies. 
This saint has not only been adopted by the 
government in times past, but has been pro- 
claimed as the guardian of Mexico by the Holy 
See, and only a few years ago was duly crowned 
as the Virgin of Guadalupe in ceremonies made 
memorable by the large number of church digni- 
taries present. Her miraculous appearance 
came at an apropos time and greatly assisted 
in attracting the natives to the new worship. 

The Aztecs had long worshipped a deity 
called Tonantzin, " Mother of Gods," who was 
supposed to reside on the Hill of Tepeyacac, 
now called Guadalupe. Tradition says that a 
devout Indian named Juan Diego, who resided 
in the village of Tolpetlac, and who recently had 
been converted to Christianity, was passing by 
this way on the morning of the 9th day of 
December, 1531, on his way to early mass. 
When at the base of this hill there suddenly 



Holidays and Holy-days 237 

burst upon his ears a melody of sweet music, 
as of a chorus of birds singing together in 
harmony. Surprised at this unusual music he 
looked up and lo, just above him, rested a cloud 
more brilliant than a rainbow and in the centre 
of the cloud stood a lady. Thoroughly fright- 
ened he fell to his knees, but was aroused by a 
voice which proceeded from the cloud and called 
'' Juan." He looked up and the lady told him 
to go to the Bishop of Mexico, and tell him that 
she wanted a church built on this hill in her 
honour. He did so, but the Bishop was loth to 
believe this wonderful tale from a poor, ignorant 
Indian. A second and yet a third time did the 
same vision appear to the pious Juan and make 
the same request. On this last occasion Juan 
had passed on the opposite side of the hill to 
avoid the woman but to no avail. Upon the 
report of the third vision the Bishop told Juan 
to ask for some unmistakable sign. The lady 
appeared again on the following morning and 
Juan told her of the Bishop 's request. She told 
him to go up the hill and gather flowers from 
the barren hill-side where they had never been 
known to grow. As soon as he reached there 
many beautiful flowers appeared in a miracu- 
lous manner, which Juan gathered up in his 
tilma, or blanket, and took to the Bishop. When 



238 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
he had emptied his tilma the image of the Virgin 
was found on the blanket in most brilliant 
colours. 

The Bishop reverently took the tilma and ac- 
cepted it as an unmistakable token. He at once 
began the erection of a chapel where it had been 
commanded. As soon as the chapel was com- 
pleted, he hung the tilma on the high altar where 
it has remained ever since except for a few 
short periods. It can now be seen under a glass 
upon the payment of a small fee. Some persons 
say that upon examination it proves to be only 
a cheap daub upon coarse, cotton material; 
others say that it was taken out a few years ago 
and examined and they could not find any trace 
of paint, but that the colours seemed to stay 
there in some miraculous way. Not being per- 
mitted to make a personal examination, I leave 
the reader to make his choice as inclination 
directs. 

From the time of its origin this legend has 
had a wonderful and deep influence upon the 
Indians. It is even so to-day. Our Lady of 
Guadalupe is looked upon by them as their 
patron and protector. Coming so soon after 
the conquest and appearing on a hill already 
sacred to that race, it led thousands to the new 
religion. The main church is very large and 



Holidays and Holy-days 239 

imposing with a nave two hundred feet long 
and one hundred and twenty-two feet wide, and 
cost over two million dollars in gold. The altar 
is magnificent and it has a solid silver railing 
weighing several tons around the chancel. 
There is another chapel connected with the 
cathedral church. Back of these is the miracu- 
lous spring which burst forth from the very 
spot on which the Virgin stood at her last ap- 
pearance. Half way up the hill are some stone 
sails erected by a grateful mariner, and on the 
top of the hill is another chapel. Back of this 
is a cemetery in which Santa Anna and other 
noted persons are buried. A beautiful view of 
the capital and the Valley of Mexico is obtained 
from the top of the hill which well repays for 
the exertion in climbing. 

" From Heaven she descended, 
Triumphant and glorious, 
To favour us — 
La-Guadalupana." 

Thus sing the Indians on the 12th of Decem- 
ber of each year. This is the day that has been 
appointed for the great " fiesta " in honour of 
the Virgin who appeared to Juan Diego. All 
others fade into insignificance and are com- 
pletely overshadowed by the annual celebrations 



240 Mexico and Her People To-day 



in honour of Our Lady of Guadalupe. Any one 
who happens to be in the City of Mexico on this 
date, or a few days prior thereto, should not 
fail to take the street car for Guadalupe, a 
suburban town about three miles to the east- 
ward. The route follows an ancient Aztec 
causeway which was old when Cortez invaded 
this valley. To the merry hum of the trolley, 
which seems strangely out of place on this 
historic highway, the traveller is carried along. 
One does not need to be told that something out 
of the ordinary is about to take place. The 
streets of the capital and all the roads leading 
to Guadalupe are alive with people on their way 
to this most sacred shrine. It is said that many 
of these Indians tramp hundreds of miles to be 
present on these occasions, taking their food 
with them and sleeping out in the open air. 
Tens of thousands of Indians are present at 
each annual celebration and the number is said 
in some years to equal a hundred thousand souls 
and more. 

In Guadalupe the streets and plazas around 
the famous church are crowded with booths for 
the sale of native wares, candles, images of the 
Virgin and for the carrying-on of many kinds 
of gambling. There are many booths in which 
refreshments are served by women in native 



Holidays and Holy-days 241 



costumes. The viands include cold chicken, 
eggs, tamales, frijoles (beans), cakes and 
sweets. For beverages you can take your choice 
between beer and pulque. A motley assemblage 
is present. Indians from the hot lands mingle 
with the purer types of the- Aztec from the 
mountains and table lands. The swarms of 
Indians fairly crowd the plaza and streets, some 
eating and drinking, some sleeping, some mak- 
ing love and some whiling away the time with 
cards or other gambling devices. All these peo- 
ple, of course, belong to the peon class. Mingled 
with the natives here and there are all types of 
Mexicans, and a number of Americans drawn 
here by curiosity add variety to the occasion. 
The lame, the blind and the halt are there too ; 
for alms are plentiful and Our Lady possesses 
wondrous powers of healing. Many testi- 
monials to this fact are seen in the little chapel 
which shelters the miraculous spring. Hun- 
dreds and thousands carry away with them a 
bottle of these healing waters. 

A feeling of reverence pervades the sanctuary. 
The kneeling figures with bodies motionless and 
their eyes and faces fixed upon the high altar, 
crowd the floor until it is impossible to move. 
One can not help being impressed by this feel- 
ing of reverence pervading the church and 



242 Mexico and Her People To-day 

ckapels. Outside it is different; for here tlie 
throng moves around visiting the booths, eating, 
drinking and gambling. Indian minstrels play 
their weird airs. Beggars cry out to give them 
something " por el amor del Dios " (" for the 
love of God "). At night the plaza and streets 
are one indistinguishable mass of dark, reclin- 
ing and slumbering figures wrapped in their 
blankets and shawls. The elements are kind in 
December for it is the dry season. 

The next day after one of these celebrations 
I left the capital for Puebla. For many miles 
we kept passing Indians singly, in groups, and 
whole families together homeward bound. They 
followed well-worn paths which were plainly 
visible. The trails were narrow and all 
marched along single file in regular Indian 
fashion. They would stop and look at our train 
as it noisily passed by. Perhaps they were 
happy in their simple way in the thought that 
for one year more, at least. Our Lady of Guada- 
lupe would watch over and protect them, her 
humble worshippers. 




BKOGA.^S OF THK CITY OF MEXICO 



CHAPTER XIII 

A TRANSPLANTED SPORT 

The bull-fight as an amusement is the exclu- 
sive property of the Spaniard. It originated 
in Spain and has never spread beyond the limits 
of Spanish conquest. Perhaps it is this very 
exclusiveness that causes them to cling to it so 
tenaciously, though legislatures and govern- 
ments have made vigorous efforts to abolish 
the brutal spectacles. It is, according to a native 
writer, a proof of the superiority of the Span- 
iard, because '^ the Spanish men are as much 
more brave than other men, as the Spanish bull 
is more savage and valiant than all other bulls." 
Eather, it seems to me to be a survivor of the 
ancient gladiatorial contests, or fights between 
man and beast in the great amphitheatres of 
Rome. 

I had never before, even when standing 
within the historic walls of the Colosseum, been 
able to picture in my own mind the scene of the 
arena crowded with combatants while the ex- 

243 



244 Mexico and Her People To-day 

pectant multitude filled tlie seats in tier upon 
tier, until I found myself within the great bull- 
ring of Madrid. There was the arena, and 
round about were the eager throng, a crowd of 
fourteen thousand human beings who im- 
patiently and anxiously awaited the sound of 
the bugle which would announce the opening of 
the spectacle of blood and brute torture. Then 
it was possible to understand how, in an earlier 
and more brutal age, the Roman populace 
gloated over the combats where the death of 
some of the participants was as much fore- 
doomed as the fate of the bull who enters the 
ring to-day with a defiant toss of his horns. 

If popularity is to be judged by the amount 
of patronage, then the bull-fight is the most 
popular amusement in Mexico to-day. The 
national life is permeated with the sport. The 
Sunday bull-fight is the topic of conversation 
in the capital for the following week. Even the 
children indulge in imitations of this favourite 
game in their childish way. It is only on Sun- 
days and feast days that the corrida de toros 
occurs. Six days shalt thou do nothing and on 
the seventh go to the bull-fight, runs an old 
Madrid saying. They probably go on the theory 
that a good entertainment is better on that day 
than any other. It is useless to argue with a 



A Transplanted Sport 245 



Spaniard or Spanish-American about the 
brutality or inhumanity of these spectacles as 
they will immediately remind us of the prize- 
fights within our own borders which frequently 
result in death. This is a gentle hint that we 
should clean our own Augean stables before 
telling our neighbours what they should not do. 
Perhaps it is a rebuke that is not entirely out of 
place. 

The Plaza de Toros is always a great, circu- 
lar building of stone or wood with little pre- 
tence or ornament. It is built for the bull-fight 
and for no other purpose. The interior is an 
immense amphitheatre, with seats in tiers rising 
to the top where the private boxes are located. 
These alone have a roof, as all the rest of the 
structure is open to the sky. Half the seats are 
exposed to the bright sun and the other half 
are in shadow. The seats on the sol, or sunny 
side, generally cost only about half as much as 
those in the sombra, or shady part. The fights 
are usually advertised '' if the time and weather 
permits." The ring itself is an arena about a 
hundred feet in diameter, encircled by a high 
board fence with a lower barrier on the inside, 
which serves as a means of escape for a torero 
who is too closely pursued by the irate bull. 



246 Mexico and Her People To-day 

Sometimes a bull will leap over this first barrier 
and then an exciting race follows. 

An American will not soon forget the first 
sight of the full amphitheatre. The scene is 
an exciting one and there is a tension of the 
nerves in anticipation of what is to come. The 
bands play and, if there is any delay, the thou- 
sands of impatient spectators will shout and 
yell themselves hoarse. There is usually a 
cheer when the president for the occasion and 
his companions take their seats. At length the 
gates opposite the president are opened and 
a gaily caparisoned horseman, called the 
alguacil, appears. He asks permission to kill 
the bulls. This being granted, the president 
tosses him the key to the bull-pen, which he 
catches in his hat. He is cheered if he does 
catch it and hissed if he fails. The gate opens 
again and the gay company of bull-fighters is 
announced by the blast of trumpets. These men 
arrayed in costumes of red, yellow, green and 
blue silks, satins and velvets, glittering with 
beads, jewels and gold braid, form a brilliant 
spectacle as they march across the arena to 
salute the president, after the manner of the 
gladiators of old. Every one taking part in this 
exhibition appears in this procession, from the 
matador to the men with wheelbarrows and 



A Transplanted Sport 247 

shovels who clean up the arena after each per- 
formance. I said all, but the principal charac- 
ter himself is reserved until later. After salut- 
ing the president the company march around 
the ring to receive the plaudits of the people. 

The bull-fight is a tragedy in three acts. 
After the company have withdrawn, the ^oor 
through which the bull enters is unlocked and 
the first act begins with a flourish of trumpets. 
The bull rushes out from a dark stall into the 
dazzling light, furious with rage and trembling 
in every limb. This is an intense moment and 
all eyes are centred upon the newcomer. As 
he enters, a barbed steel hook covered with 
flowing ribbons is placed in his shoulder. The 
ribbons indicate the ranch or hacienda from 
whence he came. Even the street urchins can 
recognize the colours of a hacienda which has 
the reputation of producing animals that are 
noted for their belligerent qualities. 

Startled by the intense light and enraged by 
the stinging of the steel hook, the bull stands 
for an instant recovering his senses. Some- 
times he will paw the earth, toss the dust over 
his back and bellow his defiance. Around him 
in the ring are the capeadores, men on foot 
carrying red capes, and picadores, men on 
horses armed with lances. These latter sit 



248 Mexico and Her People To-day 



motionless as statues upon their steeds that are 
blindfolded ready for the sacrifice. 

After a moment of uncertainty, the bull 
dashes either at a capeador or picador. The 
former quickly runs to the barrier and nimbly 
leaps over, leaving the bull more infuriated 
than ever. The horse attracts his attention 
next and there is no Way of escape for this poor, 
old, broken down servant of man. The picador 
makes no effort to save his steed, which is blind- 
folded so that he may not see his danger, but 
simply plants his blunt spear-point in the 
shoulder of the brute. Sometimes this will save 
the horse, but it does not please the audience 
for a certain nmuber of horses must be sacri- 
ficed. More frequently the bull will, with a 
single toss of the horns, overthrow both horse 
and rider in a heap. The capeadores then hover 
around with their cloaks and distract the atten- 
tion of the bull from the prostrate rider who is 
helpless because of his iron armour. Once I saw 
a rider fall on the back of the bull much to the 
surprise of both. It is seldom that a picador 
is killed, for the bull will nearly always leave 
him and chase a red cloak. 

Fortunate, indeed, is the horse that is in- 
stantly killed. If able to walk, he is ridden 
around in the ring again with blood streaming 



A Transplanted Sport 249 



from his wounds and trampling upon his own 
bowels. Or the poor brute may be sewed up in a 
crude, surgical way in order to enable him to 
canter around the ring a few more times. Once, 
only, in an experience covering several bull- 
fights in several countries, have I seen a horse 
drop dead from the first blow. The fight is not 
complete without the shedding of the blood of 
horses, and sometimes the crowd will clamour 
for more horses before this act is closed. There 
must be enough, for economy in this feature will 
place the people in a bad mood. The audience 
must be catered to, for if disappointed they are 
likely to demolish the ring and tear up the seats 
as a method of showing their displeasure. This, 
in itself, is sufficient to prove the debasing and 
brutalizing influence of this sport. 

In the second act the banderilleros, men who 
plant the banderillas in the neck of the bull, ap- 
pear in the arena. This is the most artistic and 
most interesting act in the entire performance, 
for great skill is displayed and little blood 
spilled. These men come in the ring without 
cape or any means of defence and depend 
entirely upon their skill and agility for safety. 
They are finely dressed and are usually superbly 
built fellows with lithe and muscular bodies. 
The banderillero takes with him a pair of barbed 



250 Mexico and Her People To-day 

darts about two feet long and covered with 
fancy coloured paper with ribbon streamers. He 
shakes these at the bull, thus provoking an 
assault. Then, just when he seems to be on the 
bull's horns and the novice turns his face away 
to avoid the scene, he plants the darts in the 
gory neck of the bull and steps lightly aside. 
These darts re-enrage the bull, who has been 
getting rather tired of the whole affair. He 
attacks whatever engages his attention. It may 
be only a dead horse which he will then tear 
open, being aroused to fury by the smell of the 
blood. 

There are usually two of these men and each 
plants four darts in the bull 's neck. They must 
be placed in front of the shoulder and so firmly 
inserted that they will not be shaken out. If 
successful in these particulars, then the ban- 
derillero who is a favourite will receive pro- 
longed applause and a perfect volley of compli- 
mentary comments. Even the matador himself 
ofttimes deigns to take part in this act. If so, 
he performs the act in some daring and novel 
way. They will sometimes sit in a chair and 
thus plant the darts, or take a pole and vault 
over the bull after placing them. Occasionally 
a bull is cowardly and will not fight. Then 
** fire " is called for and darts filled with 



A Transplanted Sport 251 

powder which explodes in the flesh are used. 
This will cause the bull to dance and skip around 
in his agony, which is very pleasing to the audi- 
ence and furnishes variety to an otherwise 
monotonous exhibition. 

The trumpet sounds the last act. This is the 
duel, — the death. Everything has been done 
with reference to this act. The first two acts 
have been intended to madden the animal and 
tire him by the violent exercise and loss of blood. 
He is panting, his sides heave as though they 
would burst, his neck is one mass of blood over 
which, as if in mockery, hang the many-hued 
darts. The man with the sword would not stand 
much show with a fresh and unwearied animal. 
This actor is the matador, or espada, and, if 
known as one who kills his bulls with a single 
stroke of the sword, he will receive great ap- 
plause on entering. He steps forward to the 
president's box and makes a little speech, offer- 
ing to kill the bull to the honour of Mexico. 
Throwing his hat to some one in the seats, (for 
it is considered an honour to hold any of his 
apparel) the hero advances sword in hand to- 
ward the bull, who, during this by-play, has 
been entertained by the cape-bearers again. 
He bears in his left hand a staff, called the 
muleta, over which is a red flag, and in the right 



252 Mexico and Her People To-day 



a keen-edged sword. The flag serves both as a 
lure to the beast and a protection to the man. He 
is usually pale and always alert, and studies the 
animal for a moment to ascertain his disposi- 
tion. This can not be prolonged for the audience 
will not brook delay. The tension of nerves is 
too great. As the bull makes a rush for the red 
flag, with head lowered, the matador plunges the 
keen blade into the bull's shoulders up to the 
hilt. The bull staggers and dies. 

It is wonderful to see how excited and enthu- 
siastic the crowd becomes when the matador has 
made a skilful killing. They rise and cheer 
and wave their handkerchiefs. As he passes 
around the ring to receive their applause, a per- 
fect volley of hats, coats, handkerchiefs, and 
cigars are thrown toward him. These are tossed 
back except the cigars or any money that may 
have been included. If the killing has been 
poorly made, or in a bungling manner, hisses re- 
place cheers and boards or chairs may be thrown 
instead of hats and cigars At a fight in Guate- 
mala City I saw one matador chased out of the 
ring, and he did not return again during that 
performance. This was done after he had made 
three unsuccessful attempts to kill the bull and 
had plunged two swords into the poor, tortured 
animal without striking a vital spot. 



A Transplanted Sport 253 



Then comes the finale. Teams of gaily- 
decked mules are brought in to drag out the dead 
bull and horses. The bloody places are covered 
over with sawdust in order to prevent slipping. 
Even before the dead animals are removed, the 
two or three picadores appear on other sorry- 
looking steeds, even worse than the first ones if 
such a thing were possible. The trumpet 
sounds, the door flies open and another bull 
comes rushing in to meet the same fate as the 
first. The play begins again with the same 
variety of sickening incidents. Others follow 
in regular order until the usual number of six 
bulls have been dispatched. The management 
is usually very careful not to promise more 
than will be performed, for they Imow the tem- 
per of the audience too well. At a bull-fight 
in Madrid, which I attended, the management 
had promised ten bulls in its posters but the 
tickets only called for eight. After the eighth 
bull had been dispatched the end was announced, 
but the crowd refused to leave. All over the 
vast amphitheatre rang the cry '' otro toro " 
(another bull), repeated over and over again in 
one swelling cadence with ever-increasing 
volume. The management was obdurate and the 
multitudes left muttering their maledictions. 
Formerly gentlemen of the court mounted on 



254 Mexico and Her People To-day 

the finest horses in the kingdom entered the 
arena and fought the bull like the knights of old. 
Now the sport has degenerated and is performed 
by professionals hired for the purpose. I once 
had the opportunity of witnessing a bull-fight 
by the Portuguese method. This is the bull-fight 
deprived of its disgusting details. It is even 
more exciting and dispenses with the killing of 
both bull and horses. The men with the red 
cloaks are employed just the same but the 
men who place the handerillas are mounted on 
horses. They are not broken-down hacks, but 
magnificent, well-trained animals and good care 
is taken that the bull does not make sausage 
meat of them. As a further protection^ the 
points of the bull 's horns are covered with balls 
to prevent injury to the horses. Their sport 
consists in riding past the bull, and placing the 
darts without permitting the bull to touch the 
horse. It is a feat that requires great skill and 
a steady nerve. After the bull is thoroughly 
tired out, a number of oxen are driven in the 
ring, the exhausted bull is taken out and another 
one brought in to continue the sport. In any 
form bull-fighting is bad enough, but if a line 
can be drawn between degrees of evil, the 
method of the Portuguese is the least to be con- 
demned. 



A Transplanted Sport 255 

Tauromachy has many devotees who follow 
the fights in all their features as the base ball 
fan watches the sporting page of the American 
newspaper. In some places the spectacles are 
reported in all their most minute details, even 
down to the number of minutes it took the bull 
to die after receiving the fatal stroke. The 
killing of bulls is a science and there are many 
different schools which have been founded by 
great masters. A renowned matador receives 
as" much attention as the champion prize-fighter 
in English speaking countries. They receive 
great sums of money but are almost invariably 
improvident and save little. The fights are not 
unattended by danger, for deaths are not in- 
frequent and serious injuries are a common 
occurrence. 

Ladies attend these spectacles and seem to 
derive as much pleasure as those who are sup- 
posed to be made of sterner stuff. Their black 
eyes sparkle with excitement and they shower 
their appreciation upon the successful one with- 
out reserve. It is the place for dress as the 
opera is in other lands. All the gallantry in the 
Spanish nature comes to the front on the way 
to and at the bull-fight. The enthusiasm, the 
manners, the expressions — all are distinctly 
national. 



256 Mexico and Her People To-day 

In Mexico the light on the horizon seems to 
be growing brighter, and the beginning of the 
end of this brutal and un-American sport is 
apparently in sight. It is not in favour with the 
present officials in the national capital and in 
many of the state capitals. Three of the most 
important states absolutely forbid the bull- 
fights, and heavy penalties are provided for any 
violations of the law. Statutes to prohibit 
them have been enacted in the federal district 
on more than one occasion, but they have been 
as often repealed so great was the popular de- 
mand for them. The best people do not now at- 
tend the performances in the City of Mexico but 
this fact has made little diminution in the crowd. 
Their places are taken by foreigners resident 
there, many of whom are among the most ardent 
supporters of the sport. I predict that within 
the next decade there will be few states in the 
Kepublic of Mexico that will permit the bull- 
fight within their borders. Such action may 
curtail a profitable industry and remove a good 
market for worn-out horses, but these material 
losses will be more than compensated in the de- 
velopment of those elements of character which 
can not be measured by the low standard of 
mere dollars and cents. 



CHAPTER XIV 

EDUCATION AND THE ARTS 

Any one wlio is acquainted with the conditions 
existing in Spain or any part of Spanish Amer- 
ica would naturally surmise that education in 
New Spain is at a low ebb. What education 
does exist is confined to a few. When you know 
that districts can be found in Spain to-day 
where scarcely ten per cent, of the inhabitants 
have mastered the art of reading or writing, it 
is not surprising to learn that after three cen- 
turies of the rule of Spanish governors and 
viceroys, ninety-five per cent, of the population 
of Mexico still remained in profound ignorance. 
Learning for the masses was regarded as prej- 
udicial by those repre^sentatives and misrepre- 
sentatives of the home government. One viceroy 
voiced this sentiment by saying that only the 
catechism should be taught in America. Stu- 
dents are not likely to go beyond the learning 
of their teachers, and these were obliged to pass 
examination in only the most elementary 

257 



258 Mexico and Her People To-day 

branches. As a natural result, instruction soon 
fell into the hands of the incompetent. Teach- 
ing did not attract the bright "minds. Those 
who cared for scholastic attainments prepared 
for the church or law. Others became soldiers 
or adventurers. 

The first viceroy, Mendoza, was a broad- 
minded man and interested in his new empire. 
At his death he left a sum of money with which 
to establish a university to be open to all classes, 
'rhis institution was actually established as 
early as 1551. 

Very few of the aborigines attained much 
culture, although a few of the Aztec nobles were 
notable exceptions. Education was in general 
left to the church but was neglected by that insti- 
tution. The Jesuits, whatever their faults may 
have been, were interested in education, and at 
the time of their expulsion in 1767 conducted a 
large number of colleges and seminaries. . 

In the seventeenth century the City of Mexico 
was looked upon as a great seat of learning and 
a literary centre. Even before the Shakesperian 
era of English writers, literature had its be- 
ginnings in that city. Bishop Zumarraga, the 
first '' Bishop of the Great City of Tenuch- 
titlan," encouraged writers as well as miracu- 
lous visitations such as the Virgin of Guadalupe. 



Education and the Arts 259 

Through his efforts, the first printing press of 
the new world had been set np in this seat of 
ancient Aztec civilization, in 1535, abont a hun- 
dred years before one was in use in the British 
colonies. A dozen books had been printed in the 
City of Mexico before 1550, and almost a hun- 
dred before the close of the sixteenth century. 
Some of these were printed in the Indian lan- 
guages including the Mixtec, Zapotec, Nahuatl, 
Huaxtec, Tarascan and others. 

The very first book printed on this first press 
bore the following impressive and ^' elevat- 
ing " title: Escala E spiritual para llegar al 
Cielo, Traducido del Latin en Castellano por el 
Venerable Padre Fr Ivan de la Madalena, Re- 
ligioso Dominico, 1536. Translated into English 
it means the Spiritual Ladder for reaching 
Heaven, Translated from Latin into Spanish 
by Father Ivan, Dominican. This book was 
written especially for students preparing for the 
priesthood, and no copies of it are in existence 
so far as is known. The second book was a 
Christian Doctrine, printed in 1539 " to the 
honour and glory of Our Lord Jesus Christ and 
of the Most Sacred Virgin, His Mother." It 
was published in the native language also ' ' for 
the benefit of the native Indians and the salva- 
tion of their souls." A few of the books de- 



260 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
parted from a strictly religious character, but 
all of thenx' drew deep religious truths from 
every event. One of the early books was an ac- 
count of a great earthquake in the City of 
Guatemala which, as the title page suggests, 
should be an example that ^ ' we amend our sins 
and be prepared whenever God shall be pleased 
to call us. ' ' Nearly all of these early books were 
written by Spanish priests and members of the 
religious orders. The first music of the new 
world was printed here also in the old illumi- 
nated style, as well as the first wood-engraving. 
The first newspaper in Mexico was the ilf er- 
curio Volante, or The Flying Mercury, estab- 
lished in 1693, From that time until the present 
day, newspapers have existed, but they were so 
hampered and restricted in their utterances that 
their influence and circulation was small until 
long after independence had been proclaimed. 
Now there are a great many newspapers and 
periodicals of all kinds and descriptions pub- 
lished in the capital. However, no American 
would class them with our own newspapers, for 
the reason that they do not seem to have the 
*' nose for news " of the American journalist. 
A Mexican reporter would not think of invading 
the sanctity of the home even for a " scoop " 
over his competitors. Likewise the family 



Education and the Arts 261 



skeleton is generally safe, which is certainly a 
commendable feature. Not one of the many 
newspapers could be classed as sensational or 
of the ' ' yellow ' ' stripe. Mexico 's reading pub- 
lic is comparatively small even to this day be- 
cause of the still large illiterate class. 

During the revolution newspapers have ap- 
peared and flourished for a time like so many 
meteors, and then they have disappeared below 
the horizon just as suddenly as they came. 
Some of them have been suppressed for a time 
by the president of the day, and then have been 
resurrected when things had changed a little. 
A number of the dailies are very creditable 
newspapers and receive a large amount of tele- 
graphic news. Some are noted for their anti- 
Americanism, while others always show a 
marked friendliness for the republic at the 
north. 

El Imparcial has for many decades been one 
of the leading dailies and has usually main- 
tained an able editorial staff. El Tiempo has 
been the leading Catholic daily. Under the Diaz 
administration The Mexican Herald was one of 
the most influential papers in the country and 
enjoyed a very large circulation. Although 
newspapers are not so numerous as in the 
United States, many of the cities have daily 



262 Mexico and Her People To-day 

newspapers, but they are generally inferior and 
uninfluential publications. The best paper pub- 
lished in Vera Cruz could not compare with 
an American newspaper published in a little 
hamlet. 

Mexico has produced many writers and some 
of them have been very prolific in their pro- 
ductions. It can not be said that there was 
much originality to the early writers when they 
departed from historical lines, but there is a 
sprightliness and rhythm in their epics that 
holds the attention of the reader. The bright 
spots in the history of literature for the first 
generation after the conquest are made by a 
group of Indian writers, bearing the unpro- 
nounceable names of Ixtlilxochitli, Tezozomoo 
and Nitzahualcoyotl. These men recorded the 
glory of their ancestors in prose and poetry. 
Although their Spanish is faulty, their genius is 
clear. Bernal Diaz, the early companion of 
Cortez and afterwards governor of Guatemala, 
wrote from the latter place his ' ' True History 
of the Events of the Conquest of New Spain." 
It is a very readable work and a fascinating ac- 
count of an interesting country and a primitive 
race. The writings of Las Casas have been 
much criticised but they deserve mention. Other 



Education and the Arts 263 

chroniclers are Bustamente, Alvarez and 
Iglesias. 

Poetry has always had a leading place in the 
literature of Mexico for the Spanish language 
is well suited to verse and their love poems have 
the highest rank. Some of the modern writers 
are better known in Europe than on this conti- 
nent. The two leading poets are Juan de Dios 
Pesa, called the Mexican Longfellow, and Jose 
Peon y Contreras. The latter is foremost in the 
ranks of living poets. 

Literary talent is much encouraged by the 
government and any one showing marked 
literary ability is almost sure to be olEf ered some 
government position. An instance of this is 
seen in the career of Vicente Riva Palacio, a 
well known novelist and dramatist who has been 
governor, • cabinet member and Justice of the 
Supreme Court. Another example was the poet 
Prieto who served in the cabinet of several 
presidents and died a few years ago. The 
Minister of Fomento (encouragement) can issue 
deserving books from the government press, if 
he so desires, and a number of works, especially 
historical treatises, have been issued in this way. 
The reason is, I suppose, because the reading 
public is not yet very large and a meritorious 
book would possibly have only a limited sale. 



264 Mexico and Her People To-day 

These conditions are fast passing away. The 
drama and the tragic have ever filled a large 
place in the life of the Mexican people. A num- 
ber of their dramatic books have become well 
known in Spanish-speaking countries but have 
not been translated into English. 

After the struggle for independence, nothing 
was done in the way of education until almost 
the middle of the last century. The colleges and 
schools already established had begun to 
languish. Even after that date little was done, 
because the church was so occupied in retaining 
its own foothold, and each successive govern- 
ment inherited only a burden of debt from its 
predecessors. Juarez had the desire to estab- 
lish schools but not the means. Maximilian 
would no doubt have promoted education but his 
throne was never secure. 

The development of the school system is so 
recent that it may safely be said to date from 
the first inauguration of President Diaz in 1876. 
Listen to what this so-called republican despot 
says upon this subject, which expresses the atti- 
tude of the present government : ' ' Education is 
our foremost interest. We regard it as the 
foundation of our prosperity and the basis of 
our very existence. For this reason we are do- 
ing all that we can do to strengthen its activity 



Education and the Arts 265 

and increase its power. I have created a public 
school for boys and another for girls in every 
community in the republic. Education is such 
a national interest that we have established a 
Ministry of Public Instruction to watch over it. 
We have learned from Japan, what we indeed 
knew before, but did not realize quite clearly, 
that education is the one thing needful to a 
people; if they but possess it, all other dis- 
tinctions are added unto them." 

The educational system has been revolution- 
ized, it might be said created, within a little more 
than a quarter of a century under the guidance 
of one man except for a period of four years. 
The schools are non-sectarian and the teaching 
of religion is absolutely prohibited. " That " 
says Diaz, ' ' is for the family to do, for the state 
should teach only scholarship, industry and 
patriotism." The schools in the Federal Dis- 
trict, which includes the City of Mexico and 
suburbs, and the territories of Tepic and Lower 
California, are under the direct control of the 
executive. The Federal District alone has neaii-ly 
four hundred schools, and a number of fine new 
school buildings have been erected in the past 
four years after American models. The idea of 
a school building without a play ground is 
strange to an American, yet in Mexico none, 



266 Mexico and Her People To-day 

except the new ones, have any recreation ground 
whatever, and they are housed mostly in the old 
church properties that reverted to the gov- 
ernment after the disestablishment. Another 
strange idea to the American mind is the separa- 
tion of the sexes which is almost universal. The 
girls' schools contain fewer pupils, for the 
parents, if possible, send them to private insti- 
tutions or employ private teachers. Within the 
past year several million dollars was appro- 
priated by congress for the erection and equip- 
ment of new buildings in the Federal District. 
Commissioners have been sent to the United 
States to study school systems, and we find their 
schools divided very much as our own. 

The schools in the various states are under 
their own control, and the number and condition 
varies accordingly.^ In most of them primary 

1 Mexican statistics of public instruction show that the state of 
Jalisco has one school for every 2,354 inhabitants ; Aguascalientes, 
one for every 3,103 ; Campeche, one for every 1,236 ; Coahuila, 
one for every 2,090 ; Chihuahua, one for every 2,731; Durango, 
one for every 2,468 ; Guanajuato, one for every 4,596; Hidalgo, 
one for every 1,020 ; Michoacan, one for every 2,888 ; Morelos, 
one for every 687 ; Nuevo Leon, one for every 1,158 ; Puebla, one 
for every 886; Queretaro, one for every 1,444 ; San Luis Potosi, 
one for every 2,592 ; Sinaloa, one for every 1,041 ; Sonora, one for 
every 1,092 ; Tabasco, one for every 1,018 ; Tamaulipas, one for 
every 1,777 ; Tlaxcala, one for every 700 ; Vera Cruz, one for every 
1,268 ; Yucatan, one for every 792 ; Zacatecas, one for every 1,316, 
and Mexico, one for every 936. — Modern Mexico. 









>^--fy /^>- <-' ^.".u '-'•'" v^" . ^ ■ ',- 



AN AZTEC SCHOOLGIRL 



Education and the Arts 267 

instruction is compulsory. There are not many 
hamlets except in remote mountain regions 
where primary schools have not been estab- 
lished, although in many places greatly inade- 
quate, if all those of school age should attend. 
In the cities, schools for the higher education 
corresponding to our own high schools are main- 
tained at public expense. The English language 
is a compulsory study in certain grades, and one 
can almost see the time in the future when there 
will be two idioms in Mexico. Free night 
schools are maintained in some places for the 
benefit of those who can not attend during the 
day. The duties of citizenship are particularly 
impressed upon boys, and some feminine work 
is taught to the girls even in the primary 
schools. In addition to the government schools, 
the churches and private associations support 
many schools for pupils of all ages. 

Perhaps nowhere are the results of the cam- 
paign for education seen to better advantage 
than in the soldiers ' barracks and penal institu- 
tions. The soldiers are mostly recruited from 
the Indians and are without education. The 
same is true of those who fill up the jails and 
penitentiaries. However much they may de- 
serve their punishment, humane methods pre- 
vail. Attendance upon classes is compulsory 



268 Mexico and Her People To-day 



upon both soldiers and convicts, and instruction 
is given in practical morals, civil government, 
arithmetic, natural science, history of Mexico, 
geometry, drawing and singing. If the prisoner 
is studious and obeys the rules of the institution, 
he is graduated and given his freedom. This 
little insight into a better life has made a good 
citizen out of many a former convict, and a bet- 
ter one out of a soldier who has completed the 
term of his enlistment. The native Mexicans are 
bright and intelligent, but self-culture is not 
common because of natural indolence. The 
Indians, and especially the Mestizos, are promis- 
ing and quick to learn. Although there are no 
accurate statistics, it is estimated that nearly 
one-half of the adult population can at least read 
and most of that number can also write. 

The first college established in North America 
was founded in Mexico in 1540 and is now 
located at Morelia. The federal government 
supports normal schools for the preparation of 
teachers, and schools of music, agriculture, 
dentistry, medicine, law, mining, fine arts and 
trades for both sexes. There are also schools 
for the blind and mutes, and reform schools for 
incorrigible s. The medical college has had a 
greater reputation than any of the other insti- 
tutions of higher learning. This college now 



Education and the Arts 269 



occupies the old home of the inquisition. The 
staffs of these schools are generally finely- 
educated men, and will compare favourably 
with the staffs of similar institutions in other 
countries. 

The Biblioteca Nacional, or National Library, 
occupies a magnificent building that was for- 
merly a noted monastery. It contains several 
hundred thousand volumes, and is a storehouse 
of ancient documents and volumes of the 
colonial periods. When the monastic orders 
were suppressed, more than one hundred thou- 
sand volumes were added to the national library 
from these institutions. Although most of their 
books and pamphlets were religious works, yet 
many of them are extremely valuable and almost 
priceless. There are a few books here that 
date back before the discovery of America by 
Columbus, and many rare old documents on 
vellum and parchment. A few of the picture 
writings of the Aztecs are also preserved in this 
interesting library. The National Museum is a 
vast storehouse of the antiquities of the country. 
One can wander around through the rooms and 
corridors for hours and days and continually 
find some new object of interest in the vast 
collection of relics of the prehistorical races. 

Like all Catholic countries Mexico has the 



270 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
traditional reverence for religious art. This 
love has caused a careful preservation of all the 
paintings that have been brought to the country, 
and the names of the donors as well. Nearly 
every church is adorned with some cherished 
painting, most of which are copies of works by 
the noted masters held in the great collections 
of Europe. However, here and there will be 
found a Michael Angelo, a Velasquez, a Guido, a 
Murillo or a Rubens. Perhaps the most 
cherished canvas in the entire country is a 
Titian at the village of Tzintzuntzan on the 
shores of Lake Patzcuaro. It is a large canvas 
on the walls of a little dilapidated church and 
represents the entombing of Christ. The room 
that contains it has but one outside opening and 
that an unglazed window. 

Mexico herself has developed some expert 
copyists but few talented artists. One of the 
most noted was Cabrera, a Zapotec Indian, who 
has been called the Rafael of Mexico. He was 
architect, sculptor and painter, and has done 
some fine work in each line. Politics has in 
times past absorbed too much of the time of the 
young men of Mexico so that the arts have been 
neglected. 

The Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes, or Na- 
tional School of Fine Arts, in the City of 



Education and the Arts 271 

Mexico is an excellent institution and is lib- 
erally supported by the government. 

Charles Dudley Warner says : "It was a 
marvellous time of original and beautiful work 
that covered Mexico with churches, and set up 
in all the remote and almost inaccessible villages 
towers and domes that match the best work of 
of Italy and recall the triumphs of Moorish 
art." 

No one with even the slightest love of archi- 
tecture can help but be impressed with the great 
variety of design and grandeur of construction 
of the churches of Mexico. Though designed 
by Spanish architects and retaining the Moorish 
characteristics of that period, they are the work 
of native workmen and have received some Az- 
tec touches. On the fagades, towers and portals 
are designs and figures made by these workmen 
which are doubtless Indian legends or traditions 
of a prehistoric age. They resemble strongly 
those strange symbols of the ancient Egyptians 
and Persians. Some of the churches which the 
traveller encounters in villages consisting of 
low adobe huts fairly overwhelm one with their 
splendour. In places a great church will loom 
up in the horizon with scarcely a sign of human 
habitation near it. Only in the tropics are these 
great houses of worship wanting. The danger 



272 Mexico and Her People To-day 

of earthquakes precluded the building of lofty- 
structures there, and the priests of the conquer- 
ing age, which was the great era of construc- 
tion, rather avoided the hot lands for the cooler 
plateaus. 

The beauty and originality in the churches is 
principally in the exterior. This is the reverse 
of the architecture in the homes, for there the 
outside walls are plain, and skill and ornamenta- 
tion are devoted to the decoration of the patio. 
The interior is generally quite commonplace, 
and a church in one city is very much like a 
church in another. The ornamentation of the 
exterior is very elaborate and of the rococo or, 
as some would call it, the over-done style. How- 
ever when looking upon the extreme richness of 
detail, one can see and appreciate the beauty 
and merits of the style, even if there is a certain 
floridness and flamboyancy present. The towers 
resemble the towers which are a part of the 
mosques in Moslem countries from which the 
call to prayers is made by the priests. As Mr. 
Warner says : ' ' There is a touch of decay 
nearly everywhere, a crumbling and defacement 
of colours, which add somewhat of pathos to 
the old structures ; but in nearly every one there 
is some unexpected fancy — a belfry f)ddly 
placed, a figure that surprises with its quaint- 



Education and the Arts 273 



ness of its position, or a rich bit of deep stone 
carving; and in the humblest and plainest 
fagade, there is a note of individual yielding to 
a whim of expression that is very fascinating. 
The architects escaped from the commonplace 
and the conventional; they understood propor- 
tion without regularity, and the result is not, 
perhaps, explainable to those who are only ac- 
customed to our church architecture." 



CHAPTER XV 



MINES AND MINING 



Humboldt speaks of Mexico as tlie treasure 
house of the world. It is one of the most richly 
mineralized regions ever discovered, and has 
produced one-third of the world 's supply of the 
white metal. Mexico, together with Peru, fur- 
nished the wealth that enabled Spain to build 
up her great empire. And many a real castle in 
Spain was built with the gold and silver taken 
out of these rugged mountains of New Spain. 
The thirst for gold became a disease among 
Spanish adventurers. The mind of Columbus 
was distracted by the sight of natives along the 
coast of Honduras, who were wearing pure gold 
suspended around their necks by cotton cords, 
and he temporarily gave up his voyage of dis- 
covery to search for the source of this great 
wealth. 

No country can compare with Mexico in the 
amount of silver of pure quality that has been 
produced. The largest lump of silver ever 

274 



Mines and Mining 275 



found, weigliiiig two thousand seven hundred 
and fifty pounds, was discovered by a poor In- 
dian in the State of Sonora. Because of a dis- 
pute as to the ownership, the crown solved the 
question by appropriating the entire amount. 
In fact the crown at first claimed two-thirds of 
all the precious metals mined which was after- 
wards reduced to one-fifth. Some authorities 
estimate the amount of silver that has been pro- 
duced in Mexico at the enormous sum of $6,000,- 
000,000, but two-thirds of that sum is probably 
in excess of the real value. The Taxco, Tzume- 
panco and Temezcaltepec mines date from 1539 
but the greatest number of the " bonanzas " 
were discovered between 1550 and 1700. Many 
of them were located by priests^ who, urged on 
by a fanatical zeal to convert the natives, pushed 
forth into unknown regions, and literally stum- 
bled upon the rich ore-bearing quartz. The 
Spanish viceregal government kept an accurate 
account of the silver mined in their red-tape 
method, for the royal one-fifth was carefully and 
jealously looked after. Mine owners were com- 
pelled to make their reports regularly and cor- 
rectly. A reference to these reports shows a 
record of almost untold wealth when it is re- 
membered that this was long before the depre- 
ciation of silver. 



276 Mexico and Her People To-day 

The story of the bonanza kings makes inter- 
esting reading. They made money so fast that 
it was ahnost impossible to spend it except over 
the gaming table, in those days before the in- 
vention of modern surplus-redncing luxuries. 
One man, Zambrano, discovered a mine that 
made him extremely wealthy. Although he lived 
in the various capitals of Europe as extrava- 
gantly as the age permitted, yet he left a com- 
fortable little fortune of $60,000,000 for his 
heirs to fight over. He even proposed to lay a 
sidewalk of silver bars in front of his house, 
but the authorities objected. He took out fifty- 
five million ounces of silver from one mine in 
twelve years as is shown by the government 
records. 

Many of those who accumulated great for- 
tunes were made grandees of Spain and some of 
the present titled families in that country are 
descendants of the famous bonanza kings of 
Mexico. Juan de Onata who colonized New 
Mexico at his own expense, founding Santa Fe, 
and became its first governor about 1598, was a 
son of one of the mining kings, and the wealth 
dug out of the earth in old Mexico by his father 
furnished the means for founding that state. 

Joseph de la Borda was one of the romantic 
characters of this age. He was a wandering 



Mines and Mining 277 

Frenchman wlio came from Canada in the first 
half of the eighteenth century and no one ever 
learned anything further about him. He made 
three fortunes and lost two of them because of 
his lavish gifts, most of which went to the 
church. He built several large churches in what 
is now the state of Hidalgo. After losing his 
second fortune, the Archbishop of Mexico gave 
him permission to sell a magnificent diamond- 
studded ornament that he had given to the 
church in Tasco. From this he realized $100,- 
000, and after a great deal of prospecting, 
finally discovered another rich mine which 
yielded him many more millions. 

Pedro Eomero de Terreros, from a humble 
shopkeeper, became Count of Regla, after ac- 
quiring great wealth from his mine, La Vis- 
cayne. He built two large ships, one of one hun- 
dred and twelve guns, and presented them to his 
sovereign. He also loaned the crown $1,000,000 
as freely as a man gives a friend a dollar, which 
sum the king never found it convenient to repay. 
In later life he founded the national pawnshop, 
which he called the Mount of Piety and which 
has grown to be such a great humanitarian in- 
stitution in the capital and other cities. 

The Conde de Valenciana who discovered the 
famous Valenciana mine of Guanajuato is re- 



278 Mexico and Her People To-day 

ported to have made and spent $100,000,000 in 
a few years. One man discovered a rich mine 
on his ranch near Durango that rendered him 
immensely wealthy. He sent a present of $2,- 
000,000 to the king of Spain and asked permis- 
sion to build galleries and portales of silver 
around his fine new home. This was refused 
on the ground that such display was the privi- 
lege of royalty only. 

A Guanajuato miner paved the street with sil- 
ver ingots for a distance of sixty yards for the 
procession to pass over on their way to the 
church on the occasion of the christening of his 
son. Another story is told of a mining king who, 
on a similar occasion, paved the main aisle of 
the church with bars of silver for the baptismal 
party to walk upon. After the ceremony he 
wanted to remove the silver bars, but the wily 
priest told him that it would be an act of impiety 
which the Almighty would surely punish. It 
was not done and the occasion proved to be an 
expensive christening for the crcesus. God- 
fathers became so reckless in throwing away 
money that one viceroy issued a proclamation 
forbidding them to fling handfuls of money in 
the street as had been their custom, because such 
acts encouraged improvidence. 

I have seen the statement that there is one 



Mines and Mining 279 



man at Mazatlan to-day who owns a mine whose 
entrance is protected by massive walls and 
gates. Whenever he wants a hundred thousand 
or so of lucre, he simply takes in a few miners 
and digs out the ore and then gambles it away. 

There is one noted mining king of to-day, 
Pedro Alvaredo, a full-blooded Indian, who is 
known as the peon millionaire. A few years 
ago a mine that he owned ' ' bonanzad, ' ' as they 
call it, and he became immensely wealthy. How- 
ever, he and his wife still dress in the peon 
clothes to which they were accustomed. He has 
built a mansion and furnished it with every kind 
of musical instrument to be obtained, including 
many makes of pianos. A few years ago he 
announced that he would pay off the national 
debt, but he found it a little too large. 

The Spaniards worked only the very richest 
of the mines. They would not touch ore that did 
not yield nearly a hundred ounces to the ton. 
Their early methods were of the very crudest 
sort until the '' patio " process was discovered 
and came into general use. If difficulties were 
met with in mining, these men simply worked 
around them and left great amounts of rich 
quartz untouched. The ore was so plentiful 
that they did not attempt to do their operations 
in a thorough manner. However they protected 



280 Mexico and Her People To-day 

' " '" 

the entrance by building great fortifications 
around the shafts, that look like the walled cities 
of old and were patrolled by armed guards. 
Vast shafts were constructed down which run 
ladders. The poor peon toils up these ladders 
which sometimes aggregate more than a thou- 
sand rounds carrying a rawhide sack on his back 
containing two hundred and fifty pounds of ore 
without a rest, and will make several trips a day. 
In early times the natives were compelled to 
work in these mines to all intents and purposes 
as slaves, and were beaten and flogged even to 
death if they refused to obey their taskmasters. 
At night each peon was searched for fear he 
might conceal some of the precious metal. How- 
ever as their costume was exceedingly simple 
the search was a very easy matter. The mines 
were cleared of water in the same way by the 
peons carrying it up these long ladders in raw- 
hide buckets. Many mines were abandoned on 
account of water in those days long before their 
wealth was exhausted. Transportation was 
slow and expensive, and the mountain trails 
were kept dusty by the long trains of pack mules 
transporting treasures and supplies. 

Until within the last few years since Ameri- 
can capital has undertaken to develop many of 
the Mexican mines, only the most primitive 



Mines and Mining 281 

methods were in use. Even to-day many are 
operated in the same old way, although modern 
machinery is being rapidly introduced. The ex- 
pense of fuel has been a great drawback in the 
less productive mines, and the shafts many hun- 
dreds of feet deep are worked with a windlass 
and mule power. Coal costs as high as $15 
(gold) per ton at the mine and is then cheaper 
than wood at $14 (silver) per cord. At these 
prices steam power becomes very expensive. In 
those early days only those ores could be mined 
at a profit that could' be treated at the mine, be- 
cause of the great expense of transporting the 
ore-laden rock on the backs of mules. 

The patio process of amalgamating silver is 
still generally used. This first came into use in 
1557, being discovered by Bartolome de Medina, 
a miner. The ore is first crushed into a powder 
by an immense rolling stone that is revolved by 
teams of mules. This powder is then carried into 
a patio, or paved court, by a stream of water 
until the mass is about two feet deep. Quick- 
silver, salt and blue vitriol are then thrown 
into it and several teams of mules are driven 
around and around until the mass is thoroughly 
mixed, which requires several weeks. This is 
then thrown into troughs of water, where the 
amalgam of silver and quicksilver will sink to 



282 Mexico and Her People To-day 

the bottom. By a process of distillation the sil- 
ver is then separated from the quicksilver. 
Within five years after the discovery of this 
process Zacatecas alone had thirty-five of these 
reduction works in operation. It is claimed that 
not over ten per cent, is lost by this simple 
method. The poor mules eventually become 
horrible looking sights from the action of the 
vitriol on their legs. This patio mud has been 
used in the construction of the huts of the peons. 
A company was formed to tear down a whole 
row of these huts in Guanajuato just to extract 
the little metal that was left in them. The crown 
retained a monopoly on the quicksilver, and 
realized great profits upon this necessary metal 
in treating the silver ore. 

The first bonanza mines were discovered at 
Zacatecas in 1546 by Juan de Tolosa. So rich 
were they and so great was the influx of miners, 
that the place was made a city forty years later. 
For two hundred and fifty years fabulous sums 
of silver were taken from the hills surrounding 
this quaint city. Some of the richest mines of 
the country have been located near Pachuca. 
More than three hundred silver mines are found 
there and in the near-by districts of Regla and 
Real del Monte. One mine, The Trinidad, is 
said to have yielded $50,000,000 in ten years. 



Mines and Mining 283 

There was very little stock speculation with the 
mines in the early days. There was at least one 
exception where an English company bought an 
old producing mine and the $500 shares rose to 
$80,000 but in the end the mine proved to be a 
failure. Catorce is also a rich mining town, and 
the mines have produced many millions of silver 
ore. The State of Oaxaca is likewise rich in gold 
and silver bearing quartz. None of the great 
bonanzas were found there, but a steady stream 
of gold and silver has been produced by the 
Oaxaca mines. I heard an interesting story of 
a young prospector who had spent several years 
and all his money in the search for wealth near 
Ejutla in that state. Having only a few dollars 
left he invested his all in dynamite and placed 
it in the lode with a prayer for luck. The blast 
revealed a rich " lead " which he sold for $600,- 
000 a few days later. 

The richest mineralized section in the whole 
republic is probably that in and around Gruana- 
juato, the ''hill of the frogs." This district 
was discovered by two mule drivers in 1548 who 
were on their way from Zacatecas to the City 
of Mexico, and from that date until the present 
time a billion and a half dollars ' worth of silver 
has been produced. A hundred years ago Gua- 
najuato was one of the largest cities and it is 



284 Mexico and Her People To-day 

admitted by all travellers to be one of the most 
picturesque cities in the New World. Its 
wealthy mine owners lived like princes and 
spent their money like drunken sailors. For- 
tunes were made and lost. About a hundred 
years ago two mines there were producing four 
million ounces of silver annually. These mines 
were worked by the Aztecs long before the 
Spaniards came. This is called the La Luz 
district. 

To-day Guanajuato is a much smaller city 
than it was a half century ago because of the 
decrease in mining activity. The Theatre 
Juarez is a beautiful building and was built 
and is owned by the state, which seems strange 
to an American. The state or municipal owner- 
ship of theatres in Spanish- American countries 
is quite common. The Republic of Guatemala 
takes more pride in its national theatre, the 
Teatre Colon (Columbus), than in any other 
public building. A curious sight in this city of 
Guanajuato is the panteon, or crypt, where bod- 
ies are buried for five years. If burial fees are 
not paid again at the end of that time, the bones 
are thrown in a heap. However, many of the 
bodies are found mummified and these are 
placed against the wall making a horrible, grue- 
some sight, — one that will not be soon for- 



Mines and Mining 285 

gotten by the traveller. It is like the crypt 
underneath the Capuchin Church in Eome. 

The Spanish conquerors mentioned nothing of 
silver among the Aztecs, but all their orna- 
ments were of gold. The value of the presents 
of gold ornaments given to Cortez by Monte- 
zuma is estimated by Prescott at more than 
$7,000,000. The source of this great gold supply 
has never been discovered, for, although gold in 
small quantities is found in many places inter- 
mingled with silver, yet the amount mined was 
very small in comparison with the value of the 
silver. In more recent years owing to improved 
methods of separating the precious metals from 
the quartz, the proportion of gold produced has 
been increasing. From 1810 to 1884 mining 
reached a very low ebb because of the unstable 
form of government and constant revolutionary 
movements. The crude methods formerly in use 
became unprofitable, and foreign capitalists 
were afraid to invest money for fear that a 
change in the government might occur over 
night and wipe out everything. The old mines 
had been worked to such a depth that they 
were flooded and could not be kept in workable 
condition by the bucket brigade. The disturbed 
political conditions had developed large and 
bold bands of robbers ; and as all traffic had to 



286 Mexico and Her People To-day 

be carried over lonely mountain trails, mining- 
became very insecure and consequently unprofit- 
able. 

Since the extension of the railway systems 
and the establishment of a stable government, 
mining is again attracting a great deal of atten- 
tion. The government encourages foreign in- 
vestments in the mines. Many of the old bonan- 
zas have been taken over by new companies with 
both good and bad results for the investors. 
The introduction of modern machinery has so 
reduced the cost of mining that lower grade ores 
can be profitably worked. Even the dumps that 
have been accumulating for centuries are being 
worked over at a fair profit. Smelters and mills 
for the cyanide process are springing up in all 
of the mining regions. Modern pumps are tak- 
ing the place of the mule and windlass in keep- 
ing the mines free from water. The fame of 
the old bonanzas has no doubt aided in fleecing 
the gullible through fake companies organized 
by unscrupulous and even criminal promoters. 
American miners and prospectors are met with 
all over Mexico in the mining districts. It is 
safe to say that the majority of them have 
either met with disappointment or are living 
in hope of a " strike." These conditions are 



Mines and Mining 287 

the same in every mining district the world 
over. , 

The mining laws are simple and practical. 
Boards are established in every mining com- 
mmiity who look after the mining interests. 
Any one discovering a claim can '' denounce " 
it before this board and he is protected. For- 
eigners have the same rights as citizens in 
" denouncing " a claim. A mining claim is 
called a " pertenencia " and is one hundred 
metres square thus consisting of ten thousand 
square metres. The surface ground must be 
settled for with the owner. A tax of ten dollars 
must be paid annually to protect the claim 
from forfeiture. More than twelve thousand 
claims are now on record as shown by govern- 
ment statistics. The government only claims 
a one-twenty-fifth instead of the royal one- 
fifth exacted by Spain. 

The number of men employed in the mines 
at the present time is about two hundred thou- 
sand. Wages are low and average about fifty 
cents for common labour and one dollar for 
native miners in Mexican money. However, 
in recent years wages at the mines have had 
a tendency to rise. Mexico's annual produc- 
tion of silver amounts to from $30,000,000 to 
$35,000,000 in gold value and gives it first place. 



288 Mexico and Her People To-day 

As the price of silver is advancing, the pro- 
duction will no doubt be further stimulated. 
It now ocupies fifth place in the production of 
gold, being exceeded only by the Transvaal, 
Australia, United States and Russia. The pro- 
duction of Mexico in 1906 reached a value of 
$15,000,000. 

Many other minerals are found in Mexico. 
Perhaps the most valuable, next after gold and 
silver, is copper of which there are a number 
of rich deposits. In 1906, one hundred and 
thirty-five million pounds of copper were 
mined. When this is compared with a produc- 
tion of nine hundred and fifteen million pounds 
in the United States for the same period it is 
not a bad showing for Mexico. Iron is not gen- 
erally distributed but there is a mountain of 
nearly ninety per cent, pure iron ore at Du- 
rango. Tradition says that the Indians first 
led the Spaniards to Durango by tales of a 
mountain of gold where the yellow metal 
sparkled on the surface. When they arrived 
at this mountain, now called Cerro del Mer- 
cado, they pointed to the outcroppings of py- 
rites which the ignorant natives thought — or 
pretended to think — were of the same metal 
that these strange white men had come across 
the unknown seas in search of. A little coal 



Mines and Mining 289 

has been found but not in quantities sufficient 
for local consumption, so that considerable coal 
and coke are imported each year, principally 
from the United States. Lead is found in large 
quantities, and most of the graphite used in the 
United States is imported from Mexico. The 
greatest development in recent years has been 
in the production of petroleum. Some of the 
most remarkable flowing wells in the world have 
been struck near Tampico. Great rivalry has 
resulted between English and American inter- 
ests, and the Mexicans have profited by it. An- 
other profitable field has been found in the Isth- 
mus of Tehuantepec. Although wonderful 
progress has been made in developing the min- 
eral resources of the country, it is quite possi- 
ble that still greater discoveries will be made 
in the future. 



CHAPTER XVI 

EAILWAYS AND THEIR INFLUENCE 

A WORK upon Mexico would be incomplete 
without a description of the railways and the 
present progressive railway movement. Noth- 
ing has contributed in such a degree to the 
great progress that has been made in the last 
quarter of a century in Mexico, as the rapidly 
increasing railway lines. This is true not only 
of the influence these advance agents of pro- 
gressiveness have had upon commerce, but they 
have enlarged the intercourse with other na- 
tions, especially with the United States. 
Through this means the dormant energies and 
ambitions of the Mexican people have been 
awakened, and a new era has dawned in our 
Latin neighbour. 

The centres of population in Mexico have 
always been situated in the great central pla- 
teaus in the interior. Only a very small pro- 
portion of the population live on, or near the 
coast. Conununication with the ports was over 

29U 



Railways and Their Influence 291 



long, narrow and rough trails. The transpor- 
tation of commerce was slow and expensive, 
and required great droves of slow-moving pack 
mules and patient burros, and whole armies of 
cargadors. Furthermore, the very isolation of 
the people and difficulty of communication kept 
them aloof from modern progress, and left 
them content with things as they were, with no 
ambition for anything more advanced or better 
than had been enjoyed by their forefathers. 
It also prevented the development of a real, 
national spirit, because one community was, in 
a true sense, not familiar with the neighbour- 
ing cities, and took a special pride in its local 
interests rather than in the idea of a homo- 
geneous, strongly-centred whole. 

So jealous were those employed in the busi- 
ness of transportation in the old crude way, 
that, in order to placate them, some of the ear- 
lier roads were obliged to commence construc- 
tion at the point furthermost from the port, 
in order to give employment to these people 
in transporting the material from the port to 
the place of beginning. Those who are familiar 
with the great development of the west, since 
the construction of our own trans-continental 
lines, will better appreciate the change that rail- 
road construction has wrought in Mexico. 



292 Mexico and Her People To-day 

There is this difference, however, that the peo- 
ple were in Mexico before the railroads were 
built, and, instead of a newly-developed country 
it is a rejuvenated old country. 

Prior to the beginning of the railway move- 
ment, Mexico was noted chiefly for its minerals. 
Now, although only a small portion of the 
mineral wealth has been dug out of the earth, 
mining has become of secondary importance. 
The increase in commerce and manufacturing, 
and the stimulus to agriculture brought about 
by these avenues of communication, have 
swelled the general wealth of the country far 
more than the millions of white metal extracted 
from old mother earth each year. Manufactur- 
ing plants have sprung up on every hand, and 
the products of the mills are increasing in. 
volume and variety each year. Mexico could, 
probably, after a fashion, supply all the wants 
of her people without any imports from the 
outside world. The factories include almost 
every line of trade from the making of articles 
to adorn the outward man to the solid and 
liquid goods which cheer and sustain the inward 
man. 

The railroads have tended to enlarge the 
wants of the people by throwing them into con- 
tact with other civilizations and have raised 



Railways and Their Influence 293 

the general standard of wages so that the peo- 
ple have more money to expend for material 
needs and luxuries. ' The abolishment of the 
alcahales, or local customs, was the logical re- 
sult of the development of railways and was 
almost revolutionary. From the time of the 
Spanish conquest each city had collected a local 
tariff on all goods brought into the town for 
sale, and had raised a great part of its revenues 
in this way. Changes come slow in this coun- 
try, but are nevertheless sure. It may be that 
at some time in the future the brown back of the 
burden-bearing cargador will be relieved of its 
load. It is a question, however, whether this 
change would be welcomed by the dusky de- 
scendants of Montezuma. 

The encouragement given to railroad con- 
struction has been done with a lavish but well- 
directed hand. It is estimated that more than 
one hundred and fifty million dollars have been 
spent by the Mexican government in subsidizing 
railroads and in developing harbours, and the 
end is not in sight yet. Perhaps the motive 
has not been altogether unselfish for no one in- 
fluence has assisted so much in centralizing the 
power in the hands of the Diaz government or 
been such a potent force in tranquillizing a 
naturally turbulent people, as the railways and 



294 Mexico and Her People To-day 

the telegraph lines which always accompany 
them. Instant notice would be sent of any 
embryonic revolutionary movement and troops 
could be hurried to the affected district at once. 
There were at the close of 1906, according to 
government report, twenty-one thousand six 
hundred and eleven kilometers of railway track 
in Mexico, or about thirteen thousand five hun- 
dred miles, and this is increasing at the rate 
of several hundred miles each year. The sub- 
sidies on the principal lines have averaged 
from $10,000 to $15,000 per English mile, with 
the provision in most instances that after a 
certain period (generally ninety-nine years) 
the roads shall revert to the government at a 
certain fixed valuation. Construction is either 
of such a difficult character, or over such long 
stretches of semi-desert territory with poor and 
scattered population, that most of these roads 
would never have been built except for govern- 
ment assistance. 

After the manner of the Eomans and with 
equal truthfulness, the Mexicans say that all 
roads lead to the City of Mexico. This saying 
is almost literally true. The Valley of Mexico 
is traversed from every direction with the ferro 
carriles, or roads of iron, converging toward 
the capital. It now has direct communication 



Railways and Their Influence 295 



by rail with almost every part of the republic 
except Yucatan and the Pacific slope, and can 
reach this coast at one point by a roundabout 
way to Salina Cruz. 

The back-bone of the extensive railway sys- 
tem is formed by the two great trunk lines 
which reach out to the north from the City of 
Mexico, gradually diverging until at the places 
where they cross the muddy Rio Grande they 
are several hundred miles apart. These rail- 
ways traverse the broad central plateau of 
which Humboldt, the great traveller, wrote, " so 
regular is the great plateau and so gentle are 
the slopes where depressions occur, that the 
journey from Mexico to Santa Fe, New Mexico, 
might be made in a four-wheeled vehicle." 
There are hundreds of miles where construction 
work was exceedingly easy, as it consisted 
simply of shovelling up a slightly raised bed 
and laying the ties and rail. Rough mountain 
construction in other places, and especially in 
entering the Valley of Mexico, required the 
work of the very best engineers. By whichever 
route the traveller enters Mexico it would be 
well if he could sleep over the first two hundred 
miles while the train is passing over the semi- 
desert plains of Northern Mexico where the 
dust filters through the car windows in clouds. 



296 Mexico and Her People To-day 

The government of Mexico has entered the 
railway field for economic reasons. It is simply 
another indication of the intention on the part 
of President Diaz to control the railway situa- 
tion in behalf of the people by preventing ex- 
cessive rates through the pooling of interests. 
The spectre of railway consolidation similar to 
the merging of the great systems in the United 
States influenced the officials more than any- 
thing else, and the government did not want the 
railway situation in Mexico controlled by any 
of the large Ameri-can companies. The project 
was begun only a few years ago by actual pur- 
chase in the open market of a controlling in- 
terest in the National railroad. This purchase 
was made by a select firm of New York brokers, 
and the real buyer was not revealed until suffi- 
cient stock had been secured to insure control 
of the properties. These lines are now known 
as the National Lines of Mexico and have a 
mileage of about eight thousand miles. They 
will be held by a corporation with a capital of 
$250,000,000, organized under the laws of 
Mexico, the control of which will be vested in 
the Mexican government, although there will be 
a minority board in New York. They include 
one hundred and sixty miles of track in the 



Railways and Their Influence 297 

United States from Laredo to Corpus Christi, 
Texas. 

The main line of the system is the former 
National Eailroad extending from Laredo to the 
capital, a distance of eight hundred and thirty- 
nine miles, several hundred miles shorter than 
the Central. It passes through the important 
cities of Monterey, Saltillo, San Luis Potosi and 
Celaya. Originally constructed as a narrow 
gauge line, it has been changed to standard 
width throughout its entire length. The Mexican 
International Railroad, which enters Mexico at 
Eagle Pass and runs through Torreon to Du- 
rango with a branch to Monterey, has been 
added. The Interoceanic Railway, whose main 
line connects the capital with Vera Cruz, pass- 
ing through Puebla, the third largest city in 
Mexico, is .also now a part of this system. At 
the present time this line is narrow gauge, but 
preparations are now being made to widen it to 
standard gauge. Quite recently the government 
purchased the Hidalgo Railroad, which extends 
from the City of Mexico to Pachuca, State of 
Hidalgo. It is the intention of the government 
to extend this line immediately to Tampico, thus 
making a short and direct route to this port. 

In December, 1906, the government an- 
nounced the purchase of the Mexican Central 



298 Mexico and Her People To-day 

Railway, its only large competitor, and this road 
will be added to the system known as the Na- 
tional Lines. The reasons for this purchase 
were stated by Minister of Finance Limantour 
to be "the aggressive attitude assumed by cer- 
tain great railway systems in the United 
States." It was feared that the great railways 
of the United States would step in and absorb 
this important line, and saddle upon the people 
the trust evil. The Mexican Central is the 
largest railway system within the republic and 
owns more than three thousand five hundred 
miles of track. The main line extends from El 
Paso, Texas, to the capital in a southeasterly 
direction a distance of one thousand two hun- 
dred and twenty-four miles. This was the first 
road constructed to the United States border 
and received the largest subsidy of any line, 
amounting to $15,200 per mile. Construction 
work was begun in 1880 at both terminal points 
and rushed to completion so that through trains 
were running less than four years later. This 
made an average of nearly one mile for each 
working day. It traverses sections rich in agri- 
culture and mineral resources and passes 
through many of the important cities. Among 
these are Chihuahua, Torreon, Zacatecas, Aguas 
Calientes, Leon, Irapuato, Celaya and Quere- 



Railways and Their Influence 299 

tero. It reaches a population of several mil- 
lions on the table lands. 

Two important branches of the main line run 
to the gulf port of Tampico, which is second 
only in importance to Vera Cruz. One of these 
lines branches oif at Aguas Calientes passing 
through San Luis Potosi, and the other at 
Torreon, passing through Monterey. At Ira- 
puato a branch line runs west to Guadalajara, 
the second largest city in Mexico, and is being 
extended through to Manzanillo, a good harbour 
on the Pacific coast. It is expected that this 
road will be completed January, 1908, and will 
give the capital what has long been needed — 
a direct route to the Pacific. The difficulty and 
great cost of construction in reaching this coast 
has delayed the various projected lines, for the 
drop from the high plateaus to the sea level is 
very abrupt. It is estimated that the last hun- 
dred miles of this extension will cost $5,000,000 
in gold. Another branch of this system extends 
south from the capital through ancient Cuerne- 
vaca to the Balsas River, with an ultimate desti- 
nation of Acapulco, the finest harbour on the 
Pacific Coast of either North or South America. 
There are also numerous smaller and less im- 
portant feeders. 

The Mexican Railway which connects the 



300 Mexico and Her People To-day 

port of Vera Cruz with the City of Mexico is the 
oldest railroad in the republic. It was first in- 
corporated under the empire in 1864 as the Im- 
perial Mexican Railway and exceedingly favour- 
able concessions were granted. Owing to the 
political disturbances it was not completed until 
1873. It was built with English capital and cost 
a fabulous sum. The monopoly which it held for 
years enabled it to pay big returns to its owners 
for a long period and even now its earnings 
compare favourably with our own western lines. 
This road is noted as one of the most pic- 
turesque railways in the world, for in a few 
hours one is transported from the high plateaus 
to the sea level. 

The Mexican Southern Railway is another 
English road extending from Puebla south to 
Oaxaca, which was opened for traffic in 1893, 
a distance of 227 miles. This road received a 
bonus of about $10,000,000 in government 
bonds, and well it needed such an inducement, 
for the traveller wonders in passing over the 
line where the profit can come from, as there 
are only a very few places of any size between 
the two terminal points. It opens up a rich 
agricultural and mineral section in the Valley 
of Oaxaca, and will probably develop into a 
profitable property in the future. As the line 



Railways and Their Influence 301 

runs through narrow ravines a great part of the 
way, following streams, the traveller does not 
see the best part of the country traversed. 

The Southern Pacific has a branch which 
runs from Benson, Arizona, to Guaymas, the 
chief port on the Gulf of California, passing 
through Hermosillo, the capital of the State of 
Sonora, the home of the Yaqui Indians. It 
passes through an intensely interesting country, 
possessing a wealth of scenery and natural re- 
sources. This line is being extended farther 
south, with an ultimate destination of Guadala- 
jara or possibly the capital city. 

Another important link in the system of rail- 
roads in Mexico, and one which is practically 
owned by the government is the Vera Cruz and 
Pacific Railway. This road extends from Vera 
,Cruz to Santa Lucrecia, a station on the Tehuan- 
tepec National Eailway which is described in 
another chapter. A branch line also extends 
to Cordoba, there connecting with the Mexican 
Railway, and forms what is at present the only 
all-rail route from the capital to a Pacific port. 
This road runs through the heart of the 
tropics and alternately passes over prairie and 
through tropical jungle. 

A trip over this road is a revelation to the 
traveller who has never visited a tropical land. 



302 Mexico and Her People To-day 

No one except those who assisted in the work 
fully appreciates the enormous difficulties that 
had to be overcome. I doubt if even mountains 
present m'ore perplexing problems in railroad 
construction than these level prairies and 
swamps, where there is no solid rock or gravel 
and the country is deluged with an annual rain- 
fall of from twelve to sixteen feet. The surface 
is a soft clay unfit for roadbed or ballast. After 
heavy rains the ties and often the rails would 
sink into it until completely covered. For a 
few years the road was practically abandoned 
for several weeks during the heaviest rainfall. 
The track would sometimes slip sideways, or 
in a cut the banks would slide in and cover it. 
In the two hundred and forty-two miles of the 
main line, the road crosses six large rivers, 
whose size is due to the amount of rainfall 
rather than the extent of territory drained. 
These rivers and many smaller streams require 
an average of more than one bridge for each 
mile of track. The uncertainty and inefficiency 
of native help and difficulty of getting skilled 
American labour to go there because of the fear 
of tropical fevers, rendered the work of the 
contractor no easy task. Even an American 
workman could not accomplish more than about 
half as much as in a colder climate. 



Railways and Their Influence 303 

I made this trip when it required twenty-six 
hours to cover the two hundred miles from Vera 
Cruz to Santa Lucrecia. No one asked the 
engineer to go faster, and we considered our- 
selves in luck not to run off the rails, which in 
many places resembled the track made by a 
wobbly wheel after we had passed over it. It 
has now been placed in better condition, and the 
run is made in much quicker time. No one 
must expect quick time on Mexican railroads, 
for twenty-five miles an hour is fast travelling 
and the average is nearer fifteen miles. The 
section traversed by this road must inevitably 
be the richest part of Mexico in the near future, 
now that it has an outlet. It passes through the 
region best adapted for tropical plantations 
where the soil is inexhaustible. 

One of the dreams of the late James G. Blaine 
was a Pan-American railroad or all-rail route 
from the United States to the southernmost re- 
publics of South America. President Arthur 
appointed a commission in 1884 which was sent 
to the republics of Central and South America 
along the proposed route. At the first Pan- 
American conference held in Washington, this 
projected railway was discussed at considerable 
length. All the representatives were in favour 
of it and a survey was decided upon. Several 



304 Mexico and Her People To-day 

parties of surveyors were set to work at dif- 
ferent points along the proposed route, and a 
complete survey was made from Oaxaca, 
Mexico, to the northernmost point reached by 
the railways of the Argentine Republic. The 
proposition excited a great deal of interest and 
discussion at the time, but little has been heard 
of it in recent years. There is one man in 
Mexico, however, who has not lost sight of the 
great project, and that man is J. M. Neeland. 
He organized a company to build the Pan-Amer- 
ican Railroad from San Geronimo, a station on 
the Tehuantepec National Railroad to the 
boundary of Guatemala, a distance of about 
three hundred miles. The Mexican government 
promised a subsidy of $10,000 gold, per mile. 
He has followed the base of the mountain range 
in order to lessen the expense of construction, 
and render it easy to connect with the ports 
by means of branch lines. It follows as nearly 
as possible an old military road constructed by 
the Spaniards. 

Quietly and unostentatiously this line has 
been pushed forward until it has been completed 
to Pijijiapam, only one hundred and twenty-six 
miles from the Guatemala boundary, and a con- 
tract has been let for its completion by the close 
of the year 1907. The importance of this line 



Railways and Their Influe nce 305 

to Mexico can hardly be overestimated, for it 
connects the seat of government by an all-rail 
line with the most remote corner of the repub- 
lic. It also opens up the rich coffee lands in the 
State of Chiapas, the best coffee territory in 
Mexico. The ports along this coast are all open 
roadsteads without piers, and freight is carried 
to and from the steamers in lighters. At one 
time a steamer on which I was a passenger lay 
at San Benito, the most southerly Pacific port 
of Mexico and on the line of this railway, three 
days in order to load a few thousand bags of 
coffee. This part of the country has been so 
isolated heretofore that it has never been de- 
veloped to any extent. The completion of this 
Pan-American railroad will greatly increase 
the influence of Mexico in the little Republic of 
Guatemala, and will have a tendency to render 
that country less turbulent. The promoters aim 
to continue this road through all the republics 
of Central America, clear to the Isthmus of 
Panama. They have already secured a conces- 
sion with the promise of a good subsidy from 
Guatemala, and will utilize a portion of a rail- 
road now in operation in that country. A re- 
markable fact in connection with this road is 
that it is already meeting its operating expenses 



306 Mexico and Her People To-day 

and fixed charges, wliich is an unusual showing 
for a newly-built Mexican railroad. 

The government is now endeavouring to have 
a railroad constructed from some point on the 
Pan-American Eailroad to connect with the rail- 
ways of Yucatan. This road and the other lines 
already under construction will connect all parts 
of the republic with the bands of steel, with the 
single exception of Lower California. It will 
not be many years before this great plan of a 
great president will be a reality. Step by step 
progress has been made but the improvement 
has been permanent. In some places the in- 
novation was not welcomed at first, because of 
extreme conservatism. Now everyone reaps 
some benefit from it. Before the days of rail- 
roads each community lived by itself, and the 
poor natives were at the mercy of the rich 
plantation owners in the dry years which some- 
times occurred. Now, transportation is cheap 
and quick, and everyone can have food at a 
reasonable cost. The paternal character of the 
government in this respect was shown a few 
years ago, when the corn crop was a partial 
failure and a ' ' corner ' ' was attempted by the 
dealers. The government immediately removed 
the tariff, imported great quantities of grain, 
and sold it to the people at cost. This could not 



Railways and Their Influence 307 

have been done except for the facilities afforded 
by the railway lines. Even before the revolu- 
tionary disturbances the traffic did not seem 
large to an American, for there was only one 
train a day on most of the lines, and on the 
branches this was frequently a mixed freight 
and passenger train. 



Note to Second Revised Edition. In 1911 the railway mile- 
age of Mexico exceeded 15,000 miles. The Pan-American Rail- 
road has been completed to the Guatem.ala border. This road 
and the Vera Cruz and Pacific E^ilroad were made a part of the 
National Lines. The Manzanillo branch was completed ac- 
cording to schedule and almost on time. The extension of the 
Southern Pacific and the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Rail- 
way is treated in a succeeding chapter. The loss- to the rail- 
ways through the burning of splendid bridges and destruction 
of equipment has been tremendous and it will doubtless be 
several years before the railroads are restored to their former 
efficiency. 



CHAPTEE XVII 

EELIGIOUS FORCES 

The Aztecs, who originally believed in one 
supreme invisible creator, Taotl, adopted the 
gods of conquered races, like the Romans of 
old, and became polytheists. The Toltecs, one 
of the vanquished people, were nature wor- 
shippers, and made offerings of fruits and 
flowers to their deities. After their defeat, the 
peaceful gods of the Toltecs, who took pleasure 
in the offerings of the fruits of the soil, soon 
took a place by the side of the terrible god of 
war of the Aztecs, Huitzilopoxtli, and shared 
with him the offerings of human sacrifices. 
This repulsive deity is portrayed as a hideous 
idol with broad face, wide mouth and terrible 
eyes, but was covered with jewels of gold and 
pearls and girt with golden serpents. At the 
altars hung censers of incense and braziers 
filled with the hearts of the victims offered in 
sacrifice. It is said that this god was minis- 
tered to by more than five thousand priestSo 



Religious Forces 309 

When the Spanish conquerors came, the 
policy of Cortez left the Mexicans no alternative 
but the adoption of the Christian religion. 
" Conversion " and " Baptism " became in- 
terchangeable terms and the baptized pagan 
was immediately considered a good Christian 
even though the conversion only followed the 
judicious use of the fire and rack. One of the 
priests boasted that his ^' ordinary day's work 
was from ten to twenty thousand souls." 
Within a few years after the conquest baptism 
had been administered to more than four mil- 
lion Indians. Dreams of avarice swayed the 
minds of the conquering legions, for it was be- 
lieved that from the unknown, western world 
was to come the gold that was to make every 
man a Croesus. But first these ungodly peo- 
ple must be converted to Romanism. As the un- 
lettered Indians could not understand the real 
spirit and meaning of this new religion, visible 
symbols and pictures were substituted for the 
former idols. Humboldt, the traveller so often 
quoted because of his careful research, says: 
" The introduction of the Eomish religion had 
no other effect upon the Mexicans than to sub- 
stitute new ceremonies and symbols for the 
rites of a sanguinary worship. Dogma has not 
succeeded dogma, but only ceremony to cere- 



310 Mexico and Her People To-day 

mony. I have seen them marked and adorned 
with tinkling bells, perform savage dances 
around the altar while a monk of St. Francis 
elevated the Host." It soon became a religious 
duty for the Spaniard returning from Europe 
to bring paintings and statues of saints to 
adorn the newly-erected churches, and holy 
relics of the saints to place therein. In this 
way these cruel invaders no doubt sought to 
satisfy their consciences for their outrages 
upon a mild and unresisting people. It is little 
wonder that the Indians could not fully ap- 
preciate the humanity of the lowly Nazarene 
when represented by such ferocious invaders. 

A few of the Aztec gods blossomed out as 
Christian saints soon after the Conquest, 
through the ingenious schemes of the early 
priests who adopted this method to make the 
new religion accepted. They brought with them 
into the Roman Church the particular charac- 
teristics and powers which they were credited 
with as gods. As for example, the goddess of 
the rains who was much worshipped in the 
regions of little rain can be recognized in Our 
Lady of the Mists, or Our Lady of the Eains 
of the Mexican church. These saints are ap- 
pealed to for the much-needed rain and are be- 
lieved to have the same power to bring it which 



Religious Forces 311 



they, as Aztec or Toltec gods, were supposed to 
have had. In many places there are shrines 
erected to these saints of the Church who are 
supposed to have power over the rain. It has 
been proven that, in most instances, in Aztec 
times, a temple existed on the same spot dedi- 
cated to the goddess of the rains or mists, as 
the case might be. 

These schemes of miraculous appearances 
upon scenes already sacred made the transition 
from the native ceremonies to the ritual of the 
Catholic Church easy to a people who were ac- 
customed to outward show and symbolism. The 
striking ceremonies of the Catholic Church, as 
practised in Mexico, and its impressive services 
in an unknown tongue, seemed in harmony 
with the rites of the Aztecs, and it was not hard 
for Cortez to force his religion upon the simple 
and superstitious mind of the poor, conquered 
Indian, who was more interested in form than 
sentiment. The religion of the Roman Church 
in Mexico is not free from pagan features even 
to this day. As one writer expresses it 
" paganism was baptized, Christianity pagan- 
ized." Outward display means more than 
spirituality and piety with the ignorant who 
constitute a very large proportion of the popula- 
tion. 



312 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
One can still recognize in the rites of the 
Catholic Church, as practised to-day in Mexico, 
a tinge of the Aztec worship. A noted French 
Catholic prelate, Abbe Domenech, in 1867 
wrote of that church as follows : ' ' Mexican 
faith is a dead faith. The abuse of external 
ceremonies, the facility of reconciling the devil 
with God, the absence of internal exercise of 
piety, have killed the faith in Mexico. The idol- 
atrous character of Mexican Catholicism is a 
fact well known to all travellers. The worship 
of saints and madonnas so absorbs the devotion 
of the people that little time is left to think 
about God. The Indians go to hear mass with 
their poultry and vegetables, which they are 
carrying to market. The gobble of the turkeys, 
the crowing of the cocks, the mewing of the cats, 
the chirping of the birds in their nests in the 
ceiling, and the flea-bites rendered meditation 
impossible to me, unaccustomed to live in such 
a menagerie. ' ' 

In remote caves of mountain regions it is 
claimed, and, I believe, truthfully, that the 
ancient deities are still worshipped. It is no 
infrequent occurrence to see a bouquet of flowers 
before the image of the virgin in the churches 
or wayside shrines. Sometimes even oiferings 
of wheat or fruits are found, the gift of some 




WAYSIDE SHRINE WITH AN OFFERING OF FLOWERS 



Religious Forces 313 

poor peon in whose mind the conception of the 
Saviour and his mission on earth is very vague. 
Several writers assert that they have personally 
seen Indians on their way to the mountains to 
sacrifice lambs, chickens and flowers to their 
gods, thus proving that the grosser forms of 
paganism have not been stamped out entirely. 
The priests, of course, do not approve of this, 
and try in every way to stop these practices, 
but without success. 

The Catholic Church used to be all-powerful 
in Mexico. It held the wealth and the learning, 
and the priests preyed upon the people as well 
as prayed for them. They were taxed to the 
utmost, and ^' Pay or pray " was the motto af- 
fixed to the cross by the priests. Rich men gave 
freely of their substance. Poor peons — and 
they are vastly in the majority — went clothed 
in rags that the Church might be benefited. The 
favourite method was by the sale of indulgences. 
General Thompson, United States Minister to 
Mexico in 1845, wrote as follows : ' ' As a means 
of raising money, I would not give the single 
institution of the Catholic religion (in Mexico) 
of masses and indulgences for the benefit of the 
souls of the dead for the power of taxation 
possessed by any government. I remember that 
miy washerwoman once asked me to lend her two 



314 Mexico and Her People To-day 

■ 

dollars. I asked her what she wanted with it. 
She told me that there was a particular mass to 
be said on that day which relieved the souls in 
purgatory from ten thousand years' torture 
and that she wished to secure the benefit for her 
mother." It is like the harangue that so 
aroused Martin Luther : ' ' The very moment the 
money clicks on the bottom of this chest the 
soul escapes from purgatory and flies to 
Heaven! Bring your money, bring money, 
bring money ! ' ' 

Shrines and chapels were so numerous that 
the true believer passed through the streets 
with head uncovered and hat in hand, for fear 
that he might pass one unobserved and not re- 
move his head covering as piety demanded. 
During the latter years of Spanish rule in 
Mexico, the Church became so enormously rich 
that it was reported to have in its possession 
one-third of all the wealth in Mexico. In addi- 
tion to the power the Church naturally held, this 
immense wealth gave its leaders great prestige 
in governmental affairs, for wealth everywhere 
commands power and respect among those in 
authority. At one time the clergy held property 
to the value of about $180,000,000, yielding an 
annual income of $12,000,000, according to relia- 



Religious Forces 315 



ble authorities. Some have estimated the wealth 
at more than $600,000,000. 

It had secured control not only of the wealth, 
but also much of the best agricultural land 
within the republic, owning eight hundred 
haciendas and more than twenty-two thousand 
city lots. All this was tied up and became use- 
less and non-productive. The Church used its 
great influence to oppose all progress. The op- 
position finally broke forth, and the immense 
wealth of convents, shrines and monasteries 
was poured forth with lavish hand in what the 
Church considered a holy war against heretical 
ideas and persons. Eeformers set envious eyes 
upon this property, and numerous attempts 
were made to dispossess the Church of it. An 
edict aimed at the power of the Church was 
issued by Commonfort in 1857, but the Indian 
reformer and president, Juarez, was the first to 
actually accomplish the separation of church 
and state several years later. The establish- 
ment of the empire with Maximilian as 
Emperor was simply a reaction, and an attempt 
to establish a government in which the interests 
of the Church would again be paramount. It 
is not much wonder that the native population 
yielded so readily to the overthrow of the 
priestly power. In accomplishing the complete 



316 Mexico and Her People To-day 

over-tlirow of church and state, Mexico only 
did what Italy did a few years later, and what 
France is endeavouring to do at the present 
time. Even in Spain, the handwriting on the 
walls seems to point to the same ultimate result. 
And yet it is strange to see a nation so rigidly 
and even unmercifully regulating a church to 
which ninety-five per cent, of the people be- 
long. 

The reactionary movement on the part of the 
Church under the guise of French intervention 
failed. The reform anti-clerical movement pre- 
vailed once more, even though opposed by the 
enormous wealth of the Church. The greater 
portion of the property once owned by the 
Church has been lost. The country abounds in 
ruined churches and convents. The law went so 
far as to prohibit the Church from holding the 
title to property, and if it wished to own prop- 
erty, it must be in the names of individuals. 
Priests were forbidden, under penalty of fine 
and imprisonment, to appear in the streets in 
their clerical dress. Religious processions out- 
side the walls of the church, or churchyard, were 
prohibited. Civil ceremonies were made obliga- 
tory to render a marriage valid. Sisters of 
Charity and the Jesuits were sent out of the 
country, and even the ringing of bells was regu- 



Religious Forces 317 



lated by law. It has now lost not only its prop- 
erty but its prestige as well. 

Tbe property was confiscated, or " de- 
nounced," and sold for beggarly sums in 
numerous instances. Many hotels are now 
located in former churches or convents, and 
schools and barracks innumerable occupy for- 
mer homes of nuns. Even the famous prison of 
Belem in the City of Mexico, where more than 
three thousand offenders (most of them justly 
no doubt) have been incarcerated at times, was 
the old convent of that name; and the military 
prison, Santiago de Tlalteloco, was one of the 
oldest churches in Mexico, having been founded 
by the first viceroy. Protestant services are 
held in a number of places that were former 
Catholic churches, the buildings having been 
purchased by these organizations, or the use of 
them granted by the authorities. The rich sil- 
ver plate and the altar rails were looted from 
the sacred edifices, or were sold for small sums 
by the officers. 

For many years Mexico has thus gone along 
the line of reform. The ambition of the Church 
has been held in check but not killed. They are 
regaining some of their former power, and re- 
covering much of their former property, so it is 



318 Mexico and Her People To-day 

' • " 

claimed by good authority.^ The average Mexi- 
can is superstitious. He is boastful and bold in 
times of peace, but craven when the time of 
trial comes. Consequently, when sick and about 
to die, he will send for the priest, no matter 
how he may have fought the Church when in 
health. The priests, or some of them at least, 
claiming that the Catholic Church, as the chosen 
of the Lord, has a lien on all earthly goods, re- 
fuse to administer the sacrament without some 
restitution. If the dying man owns a con- 
fiscated church property, he must restore its 
value before he can get a clear title to a home 
in Heaven. With the persistence character- 
istic of the Mexican Catholic priests, they are 
ferreting out their former property and again 
accumulating wealth for their beloved Church. 
Their fees are utterly out of proportion to the 
earning capacity of the people. Marriage costs 
$14.00, baptism $2.25 and plain mass $6.00. 
Many of the poor peons are obliged to forego 
the services of the Church because of these 
high charges, for all services must be paid in 
advance. 

They are also openly disregarding the estab- 
lished laws in some of the restrictions imposed. 
I travelled for two days on the railroad with the 

IF. A. Ober in "Travels in Mexico." 



Religious Forces 319 

Bishop of Tehuantepec who wore his purple 
robes of office all the time. At nearly every 
station priests met him, and he was given a 
continuous ovation. A few months ago, ac- 
cording to a Mexican periodical, a well known 
priest, in defiance of the law which prohibits 
public religious processions, authorized such a 
procession, and blessed at the altar those who 
arrived with it. In many of the more remote 
districts the law requiring marriage ceremonies 
to be made by civil authorities is completely 
disregarded. The priests tell the people that 
the religious ceremony is all that is necessary. 
Although the Church upholds such marriages, 
in law they are absolutely null and void, and it 
is a deceit upon the contracting parties. Some 
priests go so far as to tell their people that the 
civil marriage is positively impious. And yet 
nothing is done to punish the above violations 
of the established laws. The government prob- 
ably does not consider that these infractions of 
the strict letter of the law have reached a 
serious phase. 

If the Eoman Church of Mexico to-day, with 
its wealth confiscated, its public voice muzzled, 
its political powers annulled, has still power 
so that it can openly violate some of the funda- 
mental laws of the country, we can have some 



320 Mexico and Her People To-day 

faint idea of its power when it ruled the country 
with an iron hand. Those who see trouble 
ahead because of the avariciousness of some of 
the clergy, are fond of quoting the old Spanish 
proverb '' The devil lurks behind the cross." 
Nevertheless, I believe that the clergy in Mexico 
to-day are superior to those who served prior 
to the change in status. Many of them are noble 
men striving to uplift the people and aid the 
government in its campaign for the enlighten- 
ment of the masses. The strife has purified 
them and they think less of the perquisites than 
the duties of their office. The well meaning 
priest no doubt suffers for the sins of his prede- 
cessors as well as those of his contemporaries 
who are blinded by the past glory of the Church. 
The Church as an institution is probably to some 
extent the victim of the ignorance and fanatical 
zeal of its early founders in Mexico. The 
Church will thrive far more when placed on the 
same footing as all churches are in the United 
States, and people and priest accept that condi- 
tion. As one prominent American priest has 
recently said in commenting on the struggle in 
France: " Everywhere that church and state 
are united, the church is in bondage. Nowhere 
is the church so free and untrammelled, or so 
progressive, as in the United States." 



Religious Forces 321 

The churches in all the cities are numerous 
and their capacity far greater than the number 
of those attending. Puebla, the City of the 
Angels, so called because of the many miracu- 
lous visits of the angels who even, on their first 
visit, measured off the city and fixed the site of 
some churches, is called the city of churches as 
it has the greatest number in proportion to the 
population of any city in the republic, many of 
them being erected in honour of the various 
angelic visitations. The City of Mexico con- 
tains the largest and most pretentious church 
building in the new world — the cathedral. 
It is also one of the largest church edifices 
in the world. This grand cathedral begun 
in 1573 was ready for service about three- 
quarters of a century later but the towers 
were not completed until 1791. It is four hun- 
dred and twenty-six feet long and almost two 
hundred feet wide with walls of great thickness, 
and reaches a height of one hundred and 
seventy-five feet in the dome. The towers are a 
little more than two hundred feet high. Then 
adjoining this building is another church, the 
Sagrario Metropolitano, which, to all appear- 
ances, is a part of the main structure, although 
of an entirely different and less beautiful style 
of architecture. 



322 Mexico and Her People To-day 

Within these two edifices were concentrated 
for centuries the pomp and ceremony of the 
Church of Rome and within their walls much of 
Mexico's history was made. It is still the 
headquarters of the church party while across 
the plaza is the National Palace, the official home 
of the government which conquered in the long 
struggle between the two forces. The estimated 
cost of the cathedral is $2,000,000, but that rep- 
resents only a fraction of the actual cost if the 
labour is figured at a fair rate and the material 
had all been purchased at market value. There 
are some paintings by famous artists on the 
walls and dome. A balustrade surrounds the 
choir which is made of composite metal of gold, 
silver and copper and is so valuable that an of- 
fer of a speculative American to replace it with 
one of equal weight in solid silver was refused. 
Within the walls there are fourteen chapels 
dedicated to the various saints, and candles are 
kept constantly burning before the images, and 
in these chapels are kept many gruesome relics 
of these same saints. The remains of many of 
the former viceroys and some of the other noted 
men in Mexican history lie buried here. This, 
the greatest church in the western world, is 
also built on the foundations of the greatest 
pagan temple of the continent — the imposing 



Religious Forces 323 

Teocalli of the Aztecs. From the top of the 
towers we can look upon the same valley that 
Cortez viewed when Montezmna took him by 
the hand after ascending the great altar, and 
pointed out the various places of interest. The 
lakes have receded, the architecture is different, 
but our admiring eyes see the same majestic 
hills on every side. 

Listening to the bells in the towers of this 
cathedral, once so powerful, one, who is a 
" dreamer of dreams," can almost imagine 
them lamenting the changed times in the words 
of the last poem written by the poet Long- 
fellow : 

« Is then the old faith dead," 
They say, " and in its stead 
Is some new faith proclaimed, 
Th9,t we are forced to remain 
Naked to sun and rain. 
Unsheltered and ashamed? 

« Oh bring us back once more 
The vanished days of yore, 
When the world with faith was filled; 
Bring back the fervid zeal, 
The hearts of fire and steel, 
The hands that believe and build. 

** Then from our tower again 
We will send over land and main 
Our voices of command, 



324 Mexico and Her People To-day 

Like exiled kings who return 

To their thrones, and the people learn 

That the Priest is lord of the land 1 " 

The very first movement on the part of 
Protestant organizations to evangelize Mexico 
was made by the American Bible Society when 
they sent out one of their representative with 
the American army in 1846. This man distrib- 
uted several thousand copies of the scriptures 
between Vera Cruz and the capital which after- 
wards bore fruit. A few years later a woman, 
Miss Matilda Rankin, who had been engaged in 
missionary work in Texas, crossed over the 
border and held services in Monterey. In 1862 
a Baptist missionary, Rev. James Hickey, 
also began work in Monterey. However, no 
organized effort was made by Protestant bodies 
until the years from 1869 to 1880, when mis- 
sionaries were sent by the following denomina- 
tions : Protestant Episcopal, Methodist Episco- 
pal, Methodist Episcopal South, Presbyterian, 
Baptist, Christian and Congregational. Bishop 
H. C. Riley obtained an old church for the use 
of the Protestant Episcopal Church and Rev. 
William Butler purchased a part of the convent 
of San Francisco, in the heart of the city, for 
the Methodist Episcopal Church. 

Dios y libertad had been the watchword of 



Religious Forces 325 

the reform movement, but it had not been put 
into practice until the time of President Juarez, 
who encouraged mission work, and exerted him- 
self to protect the missionaries from fanatics. 
However frequent attacks upon these workers 
were made in provincial towns and one foreign 
missionary. Rev. J. L. Stephens, of the Congre- 
gational Church, was slain at Ahualuco in 1874. 
A number of native converts and preachers have 
met with serious, and even fatal injuries, but 
no other Americans have been killed. Presi- 
dent Diaz has also encouraged these ministers 
when they were downhearted. Rev. William 
Butler quotes an interview which several mis- 
sionaries had with him in which the President 
expressed himself as follows: *' I have seen 
this land as none of you ever saw it, in degrada- 
tion, with everything in the line of toleration 
and freedom to learn. I have watched its rise 
and progress to a better condition. We are not 
yet all we ought to be and hope to be ; but we are 
not what we once were ; we have risen as a peo- 
ple, and are now rising faster than ever. My 
advice is, do not be discouraged. Keep on with 
your work, avoiding topics of irritation and 
preaching your gospel in its own spirit." The 
president had no warmer supporters than the 



326 Mexico and Her People To-day 

Protestant missionaries and their little bands 
of adherents. 

Their numbers to-day after thirty years of 
aggressive work seem small, as the ten Protes- 
tant denominations who maintain missions in 
Mexico only claim about twenty-five thousand 
members, or about one hundred thousand ad- 
herents including those who attend the Sunday- 
school and other services. The Presbyterians 
are working in fourteen different states. They 
have fifty organized churches and two hundred 
and twenty-two outstations which are served by 
twenty-one foreign missionaries and one hun- 
dred and one native workers. The Methodist 
Episcopal Church has twenty-nine mission- 
aries in the field and one hundred and twenty- 
two native workers, and is holding services at 
more than a hundred different places. The 
various denominations have divided up the field 
and are working together in harmony. The 
Methodists, for instance, are working in Guana- 
juato, Leon, Pachuca, Puebla, Silao, and 
Oaxaca. The Presbyterians have centred their 
efforts in Aguas Calientes, Zacatecas, Saltillo, 
San Luis Potosi and Jalapa. All denominations 
have missions in the City of Mexico. The Metho- 
dists, Baptists, Presbyterians and Congrega- 
tionalists have their own publishing houses and 



Religious Forces 327 

issue periodicals and a great deal of printed 
matter in Spanish. Before the revolution there 
were in all about two hundred and fifty foreign 
missionaries in Mexico, serving some seven hun- 
dred congregations. Many of the mission work- 
ers are medical missionaries who have done a 
vast amount of good, while others are teachers 
who instruct the youth. The Protestant bodies 
own property valued at nearly two millions of 
dollars in gold. The Young Men's Christian 
Association has a strong organization in the 
capital. The revolutionary disturbances have 
greatly interfered with the Protestant mission- 
ary work. Many of the workers withdrew per- 
manently and most of them were compelled to 
leave their work at least temporarily upon the 
request of the American government. Just as 
soon as circumstances warrant, however, these 
brave and earnest workers will resume their 
unselfish labours even more intensely than ever 
before. It will be fortunate indeed when the 
Catholic and Protestant clergy will work hand 
in hand for the betterment of the morals and 
well-being of the Mexican people. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

PASSING OF THE LAWLESS 

A RUDE wooden cross set up in a pile of stones 
is one of the striking features of Mexican land- 
scape that is frequently seen. As the train 
whirls along through a narrow pass, high up on 
the mountain sides the cross is seen outlined 
against the sky; or, if you are pursuing your 
journey by horse or mule, in the remote districts 
away from the railways, your reverie is sud- 
denly interrupted by coming upon one of these 
silent sentinels unawares. These crosses are 
mute reminders of an age that is passing away. 
Each one marks the spot where a murder has 
taken place in times past. It is an appeal for 
the good Catholic to mutter a prayer for the 
soul of the murdered one, who was thus without 
preparation thrust into the world beyond. 
There was a time, and that not more than a 
generation ago, when the murderous and lawless 
classes were numerous in Mexico. The Mexican 
bandit was so much feared, that, even to this 

328 



Passing of the Lawless 329 

day, some hesitate to travel in that country, and 
many more make walking arsenals of them- 
selves before turning their faces toward our 
southern neighbour. 

If the traditionary history that has come 
down to us is to be believed, these robber clans 
can trace their lineage back to the peregrinating 
merchants of the Aztecs, and Toltecs. The rich 
merchant of those days travelled over the coun- 
try visiting the various cities with his wares. 
For self protection they were obliged to carry 
with them a large force of armed retainers. 
This knowledge of their own power led them to 
violence. If, for any reason, these merchants 
became angered at a town, or, if the people re- 
fused to trade with them, they would attack it, 
pillage it and carry off the inhabitants to be 
sold as slaves in other remote places, or hold 
them for ransom. This course generally proved 
far more remunerative than the more prosaic 
occupation of barter and trade. It was indeed a 
strong town in those days that could afford to 
refuse to trade with some of the powerful mer- 
chants. If one trader was not strong enough 
himself, he could easily enlist the assistance of 
another of his class, as the loot and slaves 
would be sufficient to remunerate both very well 
for the undertaking. 



330 Mexico and Her People To-day 

Later came the freebooters, who, in early 
Spanish days, had things very much their own 
way. Although many of these were well known, 
they would visit the cities armed to the teeth 
and no one would dare to molest them. It is 
even claimed, and with good reason, that many 
officials were in league with these knights of the 
road, and gave them information, and assisted 
them in their plans to waylay wealthy inhabi- 
tants. So long as the outlaws did not interfere 
with matters of government, their immunity was 
practically secure. There is one city in the 
northern part of Mexico named Catorce, the 
Spanish numeral for fourteen, because, for a 
long time, it was the stronghold of fourteen of 
the boldest, bravest and worst bandits that 
Mexico ever produced, who terrorized the coun- 
try round about and could not be captured or 
subdued. 

After independence, came a series of revolu- 
tions and uprisings for more than a half century. 
The bandits then became guerillas, fighting on 
whichever side offered the greatest advantage. 
They would loot a church, or rob the hacienda 
of some wealthy landowner, with equal cheer- 
fulness. The place or person robbed depended 
upon whether the guerillas were enlisted in the 
cause of the clericals, or anti-clericals. By rea- 



Passing of the Lawless 331 

son of the many turmoils and fights that took 
place, these guerillas became a numerous and 
powerful class with their rendezvous in the 
mountains, which, in no part of Mexico, are far 
distant. Before the advent of the railroads and 
telegraph it was a difficult matter to cope with 
these robber bands in Mexico because roads 
were lacking, and their haunts were almost inac- 
cessible. This was one of the first problems 
attacked by President Diaz when he came into 
power, and he did it with the boldness, origi- 
nality and dash for which he was noted. 

This new leader found the army a dis- 
organized band of guerillas led by a few men, 
not always over-scrupulous, and many parts of 
the country overrun by bands of outlaws with 
whom the local authorities were utterly unable 
to cope. Having some veteran troops after his 
many campaigns, Diaz sent them after the 
bandits whenever opportunity afforded. They 
were hunted and trailed into their mountain 
fastnesses. The soldiers were instructed never 
to take captives. A little heap of fresh dirt, or 
a few stones, marked the place where a living 
and breathing bandit had once stood. This war 
of extermination made welcome to many the 
proposition of Diaz. This was that he would 
furnish employment to those outlaws who should 



332 Mexico and Her People To-day 

surrender, and would grant to them protection. 
The President being known as a man of his 
word, this proclamation had its elf ect and large 
numbers formerly under the ban of law, sur- 
rendered. 

From this class of men the first companies of 
rurales were formed. Finding it was more 
profitable, or at least safer, to be in favour with 
this aggressive government than under its ban, 
they willingly entered this service. These men 
were brave and thoroughly familiar with all the 
mountain retreats and haunts of the outlaw 
bands. They hunted down their former con- 
federates until a live bandit was a rare speci- 
men. Travelling once more became secure, and 
now there are few places in Mexico where it is 
not perfectly safe for a traveller to journey. 
The companies of rurales, of which there are 
many, form one of the most effective forces for 
preserving order ever devised by any govern- 
ment. Like the famous guardia civil of Spain, 
the rurales patrol the remote mountain trails 
and great plains of the central plateaus, and 
are in reality a body of rural police. Many a 
lonely traveller has been made glad by the sight 
of the gray uniform of this band. They are 
generally kind hearted, and will do everything 
in their power for a foreigner. Their uniform 



Passing of the Lawless 333 

is the typical riding costume of the country, and 
differs from the French appearance of the uni- 
forms of the regular army. They are fine horse- 
men, expert in the use of pistol and carbine, 
and form one of the most picturesque cavalry 
bodies in the world. 

There is no sickly sentimentality wasted upon 
law breakers, and the highwayman, or robber, 
gets little sympathy. Few criminals get a 
second opportunity to commit their outrages 
through the pardoning process. The old ley 
fuga, or law of attempted escape, which was in 
force under Spanish rule, under which Indians 
or slaves attempting to flee were shot, was re- 
vived. Orders were promulgated to shoot high- 
waymen on sight, and all other prisoners if 
escape was attempted. Few attempts to escape 
are now made by prisoners, for the guards have 
a reckless way of sending bullets after fleeing 
prisoners, so that no chains are needed to secure 
them. The bullets are swift and any one in 
custody, even though held as a witness, will be 
followed by the quick, death-dealing messen- 
gers, if an attempt to escape is made. Gangs of 
convicts may be seen in various places working 
on the streets, or on the roads, under military 
guard but without shackle. The only report 
necessary in the event a prisoner is killed is 



334 Mexico and Her People To-day 

that lie attempted to escape. It may be a harsh 
proceeding, but it saves the state a great deal 
of money, and conviction is sure. Furthermore, 
it relieves judge, jury and prison officials of 
much hard work and annoyance. 

A few years ago the Mexican army consisted 
of a few thousand irregular, nondescript sol- 
diers so common in Spanish-American coun- 
tries. Such men it was who placed Porfirio 
Diaz in power in 1876, the same year that we 
were celebrating the first centennial of our in- 
dependence. In promoting peace this man of 
Mexico has not forgotten the arts of war. The 
army has been improved until it has ceased to 
be made up of the comic-opera type of the bare- 
footed, half -naked soldier, and is now a well fed, 
well equipped, and well clothed organization to 
which Mexicans can point with pride. To the 
American eye the soldiers appear rather indif- 
ferent and insignificant, because of their smaller 
stature and brown skin, which reveals the fact 
that the regular soldier is generally drawn from 
the lower classes of Mexicans. 

Although Mexico might be termed a military 
nation, as military service is made obligatory 
by the law of the country, yet in times of peace 
this service is not enforced. It is said that the 
majority of the enlistments are not even volun- 



Passing of the Lawless 335 

tary, but that recruits are drawn from the 
ranks of those who are persistent law breakers 
— those guilty of petty criminal offences which 
we would term misdemeanours. Many of these 
peon soldiers who before enlistment never 
knew what it was to have regular meals and 
wear clean clothes every day, leave the service 
after a few years much better citizens, and 
posessing a better education, for schools are 
maintained in connection with all the barracks 
where instruction is given in reading, writing 
and mathematics. The pay is about forty cents 
per day, in Mexican silver, and is good pay for 
that country when you take into consideration 
the fact that the soldier has absolutely no ex- 
penses except for such luxuries as he may want. 
The standing army of Mexico consists of 
thirty thousand men and three thousand two 
hundred officers. Of this number the infantry 
number twenty-two thousand six hundred, cav- 
alry five thousand five hundred, artillery 
two thousand, engineers and other branches of 
the service making up the remainder. This 
gives a soldier for every five hundred inhabi- 
tants, as compared with one for every fifteen 
hundred inhabitants in the United States. Both 
infantry and cavalry are equipped with the 
Spanish Mauser rifles and carbines. The head- 



336 Mexico and Her People To-day 

quarters of the army are in the City of Mexico, 
and several battalions of infantry and regi- 
ments of cavalry are stationed there at all times. 
The country is divided into a number of dis- 
tricts, at the headquarters of each of which are 
stationed large bodies of troops. Nearly every 
town of any size has a commandancia where a 
few troops are quartered. This general distri- 
bution of the military forces has been made with 
a prudent foresight in order to prevent any 
local uprising. 

In addition to the regular standing army, 
there are a number of armed forces which would 
swell the number of available troops in time of 
war. First and foremost are the Rurales who 
number about three thousand five hundred by 
actual count, but double that number in effect- 
iveness. The Fiscal Guards number about one 
thousand and are in the revenue service. The 
police of the states and cities are compelled to 
undergo military drill also, and could be drafted 
into the army as trained soldiers. These sev- 
eral forces would constitute another army 
almost equal in number to the regular standing 
army. Militia organizations have been pro- 
vided for by law similar to those organizations 
in our own country, but as yet little has been 
done. When these plans are perfected, it is 




B 

S 
< 

s 
s 

as 



Passing of the Lawless 337 

designed to have the total war footing number a 
force of one hundred and fifty thousand drilled 
and disciplined men. 

The President of Mexico is the commander- 
in-chief of the army and navy. The " West 
Point of Mexico " is located next to the presi- 
dential residence and is called the Chapultepec 
Military Academy. It was founded in 1824. Dur- 
ing the war of 1847 Chapultepec was success- 
fully stormed by the American forces, but 
heroically defended by the cadets. A monu- 
ment now stands at the foot of the hill in 
memory of those cadets who fell in that en- 
gagement, and a graceful tribute is paid to the 
memory of those youthful patriots on each 
fourth of July, when wreaths are placed on the 
monument by the American residents of the 
capital at the same time that they decorate the 
graves of American soldiers who are buried 
near the city. This school now ranks high as a 
military school, and more than one-third of the 
commissioned officers of the army are graduates 
of this institution. The graduate leaves this 
school with the rank of lieutenant. The student 
must bind himself to serve seven years in the 
army, if he takes the technical courses, and, if 
he is discharged, or refuses to serve, must re- 
pay to the government $16 for each month he 



338 Mexico and Her People To-day 

remained in the academy. If war should occur, 
all retired graduates would be compelled to re- 
port for service. 

Not a generation ago the capital itself was the 
home of innumerable thieves. In fact, a goodly 
percentage of the people were either thieves, 
robbers or beggars. These were drawn from 
the mestizo class, and formed a picturesque but 
filthy group of blackguards. They would 
make love to any one's pocket, and argue with 
one another at the point of a long, sharp knife. 
Each one carried a knife and revolver. " Un- 
fortunate men, women and children, the legi- 
timate heritage of wrong, oppression and mis- 
government, thronged the streets begging in 
daytime, and committing petty robberies by 
night. They slept by hundreds in doorways, on 
benches in public parks, in ruined houses, and 
in the dirtiest of apartments. A score or more 
of filthy beings of all ages and both sexes would 
sleep together in one small room reeking with 
the miasma that rose from sewers and unclean 
cobble-stone pavements." 

Vice was the natural outcome of such condi- 
tions. All natural feelings of delicacy and 
shame were deadened. Morality was unknown, 
and they lived like animals rather than human 
beings. Marriages were unthought of, and 



Passins: of the Lawless 339 



children knew not their parents, for even their 
mothers deserted them. If not deserted, they 
were frequently maimed and turned out into 
the street to beg. Pulque and mescal added its 
touch to the picture. Disfiguring diseases were 
added, and the name leperos attached to them. 
Brantz Mayer, a writer on Mexico, has given 
the following definition of the lepero. " Blacken 
a man in the sun, let his hair grow long and 
tangled and become filled with vermin ; let him 
plod about the streets in all kinds of dirt for 
years, and never know the use of a brush, or 
towel, or water, even, except in storms ; let him 
put on a pair of leather breeches at twenty and 
wear them until forty without change or ablu- 
tion; and over all place a torn and blackened 
hat and a tattered blanket begrimed with abomi- 
nations; let him have wild eyes and shining 
teeth, features pinched by famine into sharp- 
ness, and breast bared and browned; combine 
all these in your imagination and you have a 
recipe for a Mexican lepero/' 

These leperos were the thieving class. They 
frequented all parts of the city. Even the 
churches were not exempt and you were just as 
likely to be robbed by some apparently devout, 
kneeling worshipper saying his ave marias in a 
sacred edifice as on the street. In the less fre- 



340 Mexico and Her People To-day 

quented streets many hold-ups took place, and 
the bodies of those murdered would be found 
on the pavement in the morning. It was hardly 
safe to move about the street after night had 
fallen. The thieves ' market was well known and 
did a thriving business. Here were the pawn- 
brokers who did a profitable business acting as 
" fences " for the thieves. Many instances are 
told by foreigners who were robbed, and, in a 
few hours, found their property exposed for 
sale in this market. They were obliged to pay 
considerable sums to recover their own prop- 
erty. 

All these types are now disappearing, and 
even the beggars are less numerous. The for- 
mer lawless leperos are now seen in the poor 
venders of lottery tickets who crowd every pub- 
lic place. Begging is forbidden in most parts 
of the city. Vice has not disappeared, it is true, 
nor has it in American cities. The poor peon 
still gets intoxicated and is dirty, but he is more 
law-abiding than formerly. Conditions, which 
are the result of neglect and misrule of cen- 
turies, can only be overcome entirely by educa- 
tion, immigration and the infusion of saner 
ideas, and this is a gradual process. A whole 
city, or a whole country, can not be plowed up 
and re-sown in a season, as the corn fields of 



Passing of the Lawless 341 

last year were transformed into the waving 
fields of golden grain this year. A generation is 
even too short a time. The change actually 
wrought has been almost a miracle. Work can 
now be had by all who are willing to work, and 
the government is making strenuous efforts to 
get rid of the idle classes. It is a long and hard 
task, but another decade under present condi- 
tions will work wonders. 

An excellent police system is found in the 
capital and all the other cities. A policeman is 
not hard to find. One is stationed at nearly 
every street intersection. During the day he 
stands like a statue, occasionally leaning against 
a door post. At night the policeman brings a 
lantern and a blanket, and sets the lantern in 
the centre of the crossing, while he stands beside 
it or not far away. The joker says the lantern 
is intended to aid the thief in avoiding the 
officer of the law. Sometimes after the people 
quit passing, he may lean up against a building 
and fall asleep, but you can locate his vicinity 
by the lantern. As the windows are all heavily 
barred, and the doors are heavy oaken affairs 
that it would take a stick of dynamite to move, 
and as fires are infrequent, his lot is not a very 
hard one. The police are very numerous, how- 
ever, because the government wants to keep in- 



342 Mexico and Her People To-day 



formed in order that a revolutionary movement 
may not gain any headway. One seldom hears 
of knock-downs now, and pocket picking is about 
the only kind of robbery. 

These guardians of the peace are generally 
called serenos. This name clings to them from 
the old Spanish watchman whose duty it was to 
call out the time of the night and state of the 
weather. As this was usually clear, the watch- 
man would say ^' tiempo sereno " meaning 
' ' weather clear. ' ' From the frequent repetition 
of this term the watchmen were dubbed serenos. 
The Mexican sereno is generally a faithful and 
reliable official and is obliging to a stranger. 
They have made the streets in the City of 
Mexico as safe as in Paris. The senses of sight 
and smell may be offended more often, but purse 
and life are just as secure. 

Note to Second Revised Edition. The army formation herein 
described, and the various units composing it, have been greatly 
changed during the revolution. Furthermore, the internal con- 
ditions in many parts of the republic have grown worse rather 
than better. It seems advisable to retain the chapter, however, 
for it shows how another ruler restored order when conditions 
had become fully as bad if not worse than they are to-day. 



CHAPTEE XIX 

THE STOEY OF THE REPUBLIC 

Theee is a strange fascination about the his- 
tory of Mexico, and no one can thoroughly un- 
derstand the country or the people without a 
little insight into those stirring events that pre- 
ceded the establishment of the present republic. 
With the increasing friendly regard and the 
growing commercial intercourse between the 
two countries, a few pages devoted to this sub- 
ject will not be amiss; and the prospective 
traveller, a-s well as the one who has already 
travelled in that country, will find an additional 
interest in Mexico and the Mexicans. 

However we may feel inclined to criticize 
Cortez, the fact remains that he thoroughly sub- 
jugated the country, and presented to Spain the 
fairest jewel of her domain. Having been made 
the first governor of New Spain, he was too 
busy with fresh conquests and the task of keep- 
ing order to make a successful ruler. In order to 
reform the various abuses that had grown up, 

343 



344 Mexico and Her People To-day 

and represent in every way possible the person 
of the king, King Charles V sent the first 
viceroy in the autumn of 1535. This first of a 
long line of viceroys, reaching down to the year 
1821, was named Antonio de Mendoza, himself 
of noble descent, a man of ability, and one who 
had at heart the best interests of the colonists 
and the welfare of the Indians. The latter had 
been subjected to many humiliations and hard- 
ships all of which were removed by him, and 
they were encouraged in the cultivation of the 
lands. 

The colonists themselves were a source of 
great trouble for they were mostly adventurers 
and were not, like the early American colonists, 
men who were seeking religious liberty. The 
arm of the church was stretched just as strongly 
in new Spain as in the land of their birth, and to 
the religious orders was due in great measure 
the firm foundation upon which the Spanish 
government was established. During the rule 
of this man and his successor, Velasco, the coun- 
try prospered, agriculture was stimulated and 
a number of industries suitable to the climate of 
the country encouraged. 

At the close of the sixteenth century, Spain 
underwent great changes. The line of able 
rulers had passed away, and the government 



The Story of the Republic 345 

fell into the hands of profligates who were 
favourites of the reigning sovereign. The line 
of viceroys continued in rotation, and most of 
them were fair men who probably governed the 
best they knew how, but their knowledge on that 
subject was not very great. They were poor 
rulers when compared with the first two above 
mentioned. The church retained its firm grasp. 
As one writer has put it, during the first century 
of Spanish rule the church was a blessing to the 
country, during the' second an indifferent 
quantity and during the third an actual menace. 
The inquisition — that terrible institution — 
had been established in Mexico as early as 
1570. The first auto-da-fe was celebrated in 
1574, when ^' there perished twenty-one pesti- 
lent Lutherans." Indians were exempt from 
this institution and it was only aimed at heretics 
of other nations. Large numbers were burned 
in the capital and other cities. In Puebla, the 
old house of the inquisition was remodelled 
within the last half-century, and a number of 
walled-up cells opened in which skeletons were 
found — no doubt remains of victims who had 
been buried alive. The inquisition was not 
formally abolished until the beginning of the 
last century, just prior to the beginning of the 
movement for independence. Even this con- 



346 Mexico and Her People To-day- 



cession, and the promise of correcting other 
abuses, did not stop the growing discontent, for 
generations had grown np who had few ties 
linking them to the mother country; who had 
intermarried with native races ; and who would 
be satisfied with nothing but complete severance 
of their relations. 

The beginning of the nineteenth century 
opened with a feeling of unrest in all European 
nations and their colonies. When Napoleon 
overturned monarchies, the idea of the divine 
right of kings received a shock. Among the 
countries thus affected was Spain, which had 
dropped down from the high pedestal it had 
formerly occupied. The eyes of the people of 
Mexico were opened by the events in Europe, 
and also by the successful revolution of the 
American colonies. All the offices of profit in 
Mexico were held by Spaniards, and the policy 
of the mother country toward her dependents 
was well expressed by one of the viceroys as 
follows : ' ' Let the people of these dominions 
learn once for all that they were born to be 
silent and to obey, and not to discuss nor to have 
opinions in political affairs." The spirit of 
revolution and liberty was in the air and re- 
straint became more and more galling. The 
events leading to the independence of Mexico, 



The Story of the Republic 347 

and the stirring times subsequent thereto, can 
best be treated by a glance at the men who were 
in the limelight during the various periods. 

When Miguel Hidalgo, curate of the little 
village of Dolores, sounded the " grito " of 
independence by ringing the bell of the parish 
church early on the morning of the 16th of 
September, 1810, a struggle for independence 
was started that lasted for eleven years, and 
during which much of the soil of Mexico was 
crimsoned with the blood of those slain in battle 
or executed by the authorities as traitors. At 
the outset no people were less prepared for such 
a contest. They knew nothing of military 
tactics ; their weapons were primitive and their 
leaders were without military training. No 
more righteous cause ever existed for rebellion 
against tyranny and usurpation. The first two 
leaders were consecrated representatives of the 
church that had assisted a despotic government 
in bringing about such an unfortunate state of 
affairs. These two martyrs who were excom- 
municated by the church, and executed by the 
government as traitors, are now honoured 
with resting places in sacred ground by a grate- 
ful nation. 

The first revolt was headed by a picture of 
the patron saint of the country, and shouts of 



348 Mexico and Her People To-day 

*' Viva Nuestra Seiiora de Guadalupe " and 
" Viva la Independencia " were intermingled. 
Hidalgo and Ms compatriots were compelled to 
begin their movement before thoroughly pre- 
pared, because their plans had been discovered 
and betrayed to the government. On the morn- 
ing of the memorable day above mentioned, 
Hidalgo addressed the people from the pulpit 
of the church where he had so often celebrated 
mass, and, leading his followers forth, released 
the prisoners in the town, and captured the 
principal Spaniards. Soon afterwards this 
priest-warrior patriot, who had been named 
Captain-G'eneral, followed by a few hundred 
of human beings (they can not be called sol- 
diers), marched forth to conquer Mexico and 
give ' ' death to the Spaniards. ' ' 

It was a motley crowd armed with stones, 
lances, machetes, arrows, clubs and swords, 
whose numbers and enthusiasm were ever in- 
creasing as they marched across the country 
without meeting resistance. San Miguel and 
Celaya, Irapuato and Queretero, yielded, and 
the army which by this time numbered tens of 
thousands marched towards Guanajuato. The 
governor of that province assembled the terror- 
stricken populace in the now famous Alhondiga 
de Granaditas, built for storing grain but now a 



The Story of the Republic 349 



prison, as noted in that city as the Bastille of 
Paris. Upon a refusal to surrender, Hidalgo 
and his followers attacked this fortress with 
fanatical zeal, and captured it by the mere force 
of numbers. This supplied him with plenty of 
food and a million dollars in money which fur- 
nished the sinews of war. 

Terror struck the hearts of the Spaniards ajid 
every town yielded to this new leader, who now 
bore the title of Generalissimo, as the army ap- 
proached the City of Mexico. One terrible bat- 
tle occurred at Monte las Cruces and both forces 
withdrew. Hidalgo — and this was probably 
his greatest error — retreated, and his fortune 
immediately turned. The volatile nature of the 
people asserted itself and his followers deserted 
by the thousands. He started for the United 
States, but was betrayed and captured, and was 
executed at Chihuahua on July 31st, 1811. For 
ten years his head was suspended by a spike 
from one of the corners of the Alhondiga de 
Granaditas, once occupied by him as conqueror, 
as a warning to revolutionists, but was after- 
ward buried with great ceremony in the cathe- 
dral at the capital. 

It was around a disciple of Hidalgo that the 
forces of discontent and patriotism rallied upon 
the death of their first leader, and that man was 



350 Mexico and Her People To-day 

also a priest, Jose Maria Morelas. Of low birth 
and poor, this man drove mules until thirty 
years of age before an opportunity presented 
itself for education to fit hunself for the priest- 
hood, which was his ambition. In that time he 
had acquired the qualities of patience and cool 
calculation from the animals he drove. A 
student under Hidalgo, he had imbibed a love 
for independence, and leaving his church upon 
the sounding of the " grito," offered his serv- 
ices to the Generalissimo. He was an abler 
leader than Hidalgo and showed great military 
skill, winning a series of victories clear across 
the country from Acapulco, on the Pacific Coast, 
to Cuautla not far from Vera Cruz. At Cuautla 
he was besieged for over two months, and then 
successfully withdrew with all his forces by 
night. Eeturning to Acapulco he summoned the 
first Mexican Congress, which met at Cliil- 
pantzingo, a small town near that city. This 
congress met on the 14th of September, 1813, 
and on the following day issued its famous 
declaration of independence, as follows : — 
" The Congress of Anahuac, lawfully installed 
in the city of Chilpantzingo, of North America, 
solemnly declares, in the presence of God, arbi- 
trator of kingdoms and author of society, who 
gives and takes away according to the in- 



The Story of the Republic 351 



scrutable designs of his providence, that, 
through the present circumstances of Europe, 
it has recovered the exercise of its sovereignty, 
hitherto usurped, its dependence upon the 
throne of Spain being thus forever disrupted 
and dissolved. ' ' ^ 

This congress provided a form of govern- 
ment with a military executive called General- 
issimo, and Morelas was elected to this position 
for life, or ''so long as he was worthy." 
Shortly after this his forces were defeated at 
Valladolid, now called Morelia, and his power 
began to wane, though resistance was kept up 
for some time afterwards with varying success. 
Spanish troops had arrived, and stronger 
leaders were in charge of the government 
forces and the cause of independence looked 
dark. The" plans of Morelas were betrayed to 
the enemy and he was captured. The ecclesias- 
tical tribunes covered him with ignominy. He 
was then sentenced to death by the military au- 
thorities, and shot in the little village of San 
Cristobal Ecatepec, near the capital, on Decem- 
ber 22d, 1815, dying the death of a hero. This 
muleteer-priest-warrior was an able leader, an 

iThis citation and some of the other quotations in this chapter, 
as well as a number of the historical facts, are from the " Story of 
Mexico," by Susan Hale, published by G. P. Putnam's Sons of 
London and New York. 



352 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
honest man and a patriotic citizen. He seemed 
devoid of personal ambition, although accepting 
title for the sake of the cause he fought for. He 
was possessed of restless energy and great 
piety, for he always made confession before 
entering battle. To-day, he is second only to 
Hidalgo in the affections of the people, and 
worthily fills that position. Over the door of 
the house once owned by him in Morelia appears 
the following inscription : — 

" Morelas the illustrious 
Immortal Hero. 
In this house honoured by thy presence 
Salute you the grateful people of Morelia." 

The revolution was seemingly crushed at the 
death of Morelas but a few patriots retired to 
the mountains, and there kept alive for better 
days the sacred fire of liberty. Guerrero was 
one of those heroes who showed an unwearying 
activity, and kept up a constant warfare upon 
the government forces. The next prominent 
name in succession among those leaders of the 
movement for freedom was Agustin de Iturbide, 
a former active and able officer of the royalist 
forces, and to whom more than anyone else was 
due the failure of Morelas. Deserting the cause 
of Spain, because he thought injustice had been 



^ The Story of the Republic 353 

done Mm, General Iturbide issued the ' ' Plan of 
Igiiala " on the 20th of February, 1820, com- 
posed of three articles : preservation of the 
Eoman Catholic church; independence of 
Mexico under a monarchical form of govern- 
ment with a prince of the royal house of Spain 
as ruler; union and equality of Spaniards and 
Mexicans. From this proclamation his army be- 
came known as the army of the three guaran- 
tees. His act was full of duplicity, for he had 
obtained the largest force possible from the 
Viceroy Apodaca in order to turn them over to 
the new scheme. 

Before the viceroy could recover from his 
surprise, Iturbide, who had been joined by most 
of the insurgent leaders, had started on his 
victorious campaign. Valladolid, Queretero and 
Puebla succumbed. The viceroy tried by sup- 
pressing liberty, and enforcing enlistments in 
the royal army, to stem the tide but in vain, and 
he was deposed. O'Donoju, the sixty-fourth 
and last viceroy, arrived about this time at Vera 
Cruz, but was intercepted by Iturbide and en- 
tered into the treaty of Cordoba in which the 
independence of Mexico was recognized with a 
sovereign to be selected from the royal house of 
Spain, and a provisional Junta formed. Itur- 
bide was selected as president of this Junta, and 



354 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
made a triumphal entry into the City of Mexico 
on the 27th of September, 1821. This ended 
three hundred years of Spanish rule in Mexico. 
Iturbide had accomplished in a little more than 
a year, and with little bloodshed, what ten years 
of strife had failed to do. He can not be classed 
with Hidalgo and Morelas as a pure patriot, 
but he has been officially designated as the 
" Liberator of Mexico." 

The rejection of the treaty of Cordoba by the 
Cortes of Spain gave new impetus to the smoul- 
dering ambitions of Iturbide. The second 
Mexican Congress having been called, Iturbide 
at a packed session was declared Emperor by a 
majority of four to one of those voting, but not 
a constitutional majority, and he took the office 
as Agustin I. When he was crowned and 
anointed in the cathedral with much form and 
solemnity, on the 21st of July, 1822, the ambi- 
tion of this self-made emperor had reached 
its full. The saying that uneasy lies the head 
that wears a crown never had better applica- 
tion than in this instance. Other leaders in the 
cause of liberty felt that they had been slighted, 
and every discontented person made common 
cause against the Emperor. A republic was 
proclaimed at Vera Cruz in December of the 
same year by Santa Anna, who was commander 



The Story of the Republic 355 

of a regiment stationed there, and he issued a 
pronunciamento. This plan failed, but it en- 
couraged Bravo, Guerrero and other revolution- 
ary leaders, and rebellion sprung up in a num- 
ber of places. Iturbide had dissolved congress 
and this increased the dissatisfaction. A more 
formidable revolt arose, and on March 19th, 

1823, Iturbide abdicated without attempting to 
retain his position by force of arms. 

A few weeks later the ex-Emperor left 
Mexico and sailed for Italy, having been granted 
an annual sum of $25,000 for his services. He 
soon went to England and wrote the government 
from there that the republic was in danger, and 
he would come back to help fight the battles of 
his country. He did not know that his death 
had been decreed by congress, and so he set 
sail upon his last voyage. When he arrived at 
Vera Cruz he was captured, and after some de- 
lay was executed at Padilla on the 19th of July, 

1824, as a traitor, in his forty-first year. His 
body was buried in a roofless old church and lay 
there until 1838, when it was removed to the 
Cathedral. 

Opinion is very much divided as to the rank 
that should be accorded Iturbide. He was able, 
brave, honest so far as is known, and probably 
fell a victim to his ambition like many a man 



356 Mexico and Her People To-day 

before him. The relative regard in which he 
is held is shown in the fact that the town which 
gave both him and his former vanquished foe, 
Morelas, birth, is now called Morelia, and a state 
is also named Morelas. In contrast to this there 
is neither city nor state named after Iturbide, 
and the famous Iturbide Hotel in the capital 
city, once his residence, is the only institution 
perpetuating his name so far as I could learn. 
The only things accomplished by him during his 
brief reign were the settlement of the titles by 
which he and his family should be addressed, 
the succession to the throne, order of precedence 
among the dignitaries, allowances of himself 
and family, and the creation of the Order of 
Guadalupe to bestow honours upon his fol- 
lowers. 

At last a so-called republic was established, 
and Guadalupe Victoria was inaugurated as the 
first president on the 10th day of October, 1824, 
and served until 1828. When the fort of San 
Juan de Ulua at Vera Cruz lowered its flag, in 
1825, the last vestige of Spanish power was 
gone, and the red and yellow striped banner of 
the Iberian peninsula was not to be seen on 
Mexican soil. And Mexico, as then constituted, 
was a big country, containing almost twice as 
much territory as to-day. From the end of the 



The Story of the Republic 357 

administration of President Victoria until after 
the death of Maximilian, there was not a year 
of peace in Mexico. Revolutions, pronuncia- 
mentos, ^' plans " and restorations followed 
each other in quick succession. G-enerals, presi- 
dents and dictators sprang up like mushrooms, 
and their position was as evanescent. The con- 
gress unwisely decreed the expulsion of the 
Spaniards, and their departure took much of the 
wealth of the country. Revolutions were an 
every-day affair. A man in position of au- 
thority did not know when his time to be shot 
might come. A sudden turn of fortune might 
send him either to the national palace, or before 
a squad of men with guns aimed at his heart. 

A good illustration of this uncertainty of af- 
fairs is seen in the treatment and fate of the 
grim old patriot Guerrero. Born of very low 
Indian parents he had climbed to the front and 
borne many of the burdens of the struggle with 
Spain. He cheerfully yielded his command to 
the renegade Iturbide, and fought valiantly 
under that leader for liberty. By a turn of 
fortune he became the third president in 1829. 
A few months later he was compelled to flee, 
but was soon afterwards betrayed and captured 
at Acapulco. At a farcical trial he was con- 
demned to death as *' morally incapable " to 



-358 Mexico and Her People To-day 

act as president, and shot on the 15th of Feb- 
ruary, 1831, at Cuilapa. Soon afterwards he 
was declared a martyr and his body removed 
to the capital with honours. Two monuments 
to this martyr now adorn that city, and a state 
has been named after him. Under his short rule 
slavery was abolished by statute. 

Elections eventually became a farce. The un- 
fortunate habit was acquired of appealing to 
arms instead of submitting to the result of the 
ballot. The trouble was that the people had 
copied the letter, and not the spirit of the Amer- 
ican constitution. Liberty was interpreted as 
license, after their exaggerated ideas of the for- 
mer. The scheming politicians would hesitate 
at nothing — revolution or civil war — to attain 
private ends or personal aggrandizement. A 
general indolence of character, and the hin- 
drances to the acquirement of property among 
the masses, made the people more willing to 
yield to disturbing and designing politicians. 
They are impetuous by nature, impatient of re- 
straint and easily fired up. The rapid changes 
in government can be seen when you read that 
there were five different presidents in each of 
the years 1846 and 1847, and four in 1855 — not 
an evidence of tranquillity at least. The two 



The Story of the Republic 359 

leading parties constantly at war were the 
" progresistas " and " retrogrades." 

During this period a few prominent names 
are constantly recurring, and by far the most 
prominent one is that of the notorious Santa 
Anna, who, for more than fifty years, occupied 
a prominent, but not always honourable, place 
in Mexican affairs. Earlier in life his restless 
energy was expended in a fairly commendable 
way, and he fought some battles in defense of 
the rights of the people. During the war of in- 
tervention with France in 1838 he lost his leg in 
the defense of Vera Cruz. Ever afterwards, 
when in trouble, he would flourish his severed 
limb and remind the people how he had been 
mutilated in the defense of his country, with the 
effect of restoring himself in public favour. 
As he grew older his naturally quarrelsome dis- 
position increased, his vanity knew no bounds, 
and when at the height of his glory, he de- 
clared himself dictator and ordered all people 
to address him as " most serene highness." 
Never honest except as a matter of policy, his 
cupidity became more pronounced, until, near 
the close of the war with the United States, he 
offered to appoint commissioners and confirm 
a treaty of peace for the sum of one million dol- 
lars. First elected president in 1833, he was 



360 Mexico and Her People To-day 

again either chosen to, or assumed the office, in 
1839, 1846, 1847, 1853 and 1855, but did not serve 
long at any time. On one occasion his ampu- 
tated leg was buried with great ceremony, but 
afterwards fickle sentiment changed, and the 
martyr part of this hero was brought forth by 
the rabble, dragged through the streets of the 
capital, and insulting epithets heaped upon the 
former idol. 

Santa Anna led the forces against the Texas 
insurrectionists, and was the man responsible 
for the Alamo slaughter, when one hundred and 
forty brave Texans were trapped and slain. 
Visitors to that place are still shown the stains 
made by the blood of that brave frontiersman, 
Davy Crockett, and the cry of '' Eemember the 
Alamo " still has potency. This insurrection 
was soon followed by the war between Mexico 
and the United States. 

Franklin says, there never was a good war 
nor a bad peace. The United States can not be 
justified in warring upon Mexico, though the re- 
sults have perhaps been for the best with both 
nations. Bancroft does not mince words in his 
treatment of the subject for he says: " It (the 
Mexican War) was a premeditated and prede- 
termined affair; it was the result of a deliber- 
ately calculated scheme of robbery on the part 



The Story of the Republic 361 

of the superior force." The result was a fore- 
gone conclusion, for Mexico, torn by internal 
dissensions, impoverished by the expense of 
revolutions and official robbery, and with a gov- 
ernment changing with every change of the 
seasons, had neither armies, money nor sup- 
plies for such a conflict. The people were used 
to the smell of powder but were not trained sol- 
diers, and the " generals " were simply a few 
of the twelve thousand recipients of military 
commissions that had been distributed by 
various presidents in the preceding three years. 
" Plans " promulgated by one party were bom- 
barded with '' pronunciamentos " from another. 
This was the condition of affairs when General 
Taylor assumed the offensive and fought the 
battle of Palo Alto. 

Mexico .might have sued for peace at this time, 
but no government was in power long enough 
to negotiate a treaty. A special envoy sent from 
Washington at the request of one president was 
refused an audience by a new one, who had 
usurped the office before his arrival. Generals 
Taylor and Fremont subdued Northern Mexico, 
and General Scott later began his memorable 
march toward the ancient Aztec capital, from 
Vera Cruz, like Cortez of old. Santa Anna, who 
had been ' ' recuperating ' ' from public unpopu- 



-,K 



2 Mexico and Her People To-day 



laxity at Havana, returned and state after state 
inunediately "• prononnced "' in Ms favotir. He 
issued a manifesto assiuning the execntive con- 
trol and took the field against the invaders. He 
first tried to sectire $15,000,000 from the Chnrch, 
bat although the priests hated the '* northern 
heretics " they were loth to give np the coia, 
and little was secured. Vera Cmz fell after two 
weeks' bombardnient, and Pnebla yielded to the 
Americans. Patriotism was finally aroused to 
save the City of Mexico, but the victories of 
Chapultepec. Chorubusco and Molino del Eey 
were followed by the triinnphal entry of Gen- 
eral Scott into the capital The treaty of 
Guadalupe-Hidalgo ceded to the United States 
more than six hundred thousand square miles of 
the Mexican domain, including some of the 
richest mineral lands of the republic. Disgraced 
and h umili ated as Mexico had been, it was. I be- 
lieve, the b^inning of better things for that 
conntry. 

Sanrs Azizis. ^rent into voluntary exile to 
Jain£i:a. The first president after the war, 
Herrera. actually served the appointed time of 
his office, but disorder soon began under his 
successor. ** Pronouncing " became popular 
again, and Santa Anna returned. He was made 
dictator for a short time bv his favourites. This 



The Story of the Republic 363 



was the last office held by this selfish politician. 
He exiled himself to St. Thomas again, and 
afterwards in Elizabethport, New Jersey. Dur- 
ing the second empire he tried to curry favour 
with both sides, but neither would listen to him. 
Discouraged and disheartened he lived abroad, 
until, burdened by the weight of eighty years, he 
sought and obtained permission to return to 
the capital, and died on the 20th of June, 1876. 
Thus passed a man who had lived in stirring 
times, was most intensely hated, had been 
president six times, military dictator four times, 
had upset fifteen governments, had been marked 
for the assassin's bullet many times; and yet 
he lived to a ripe old age and died a natural 
death. However, all his glory had faded, and, 
blind, lame and infirm, he spent his last days in 
extreme poverty. 

Here is a picture of this man drawn by 
Rev. William Butler,^ who visited him about a 
year before his death : ' ' Santa Anna was living 
in an obscure street, neglected and forgotten by 
all parties On entering the apartment we found 
the old man sitting on a sofa, behind which hung 
a picture of his wife ' her serene highness, 
Dolores Tosta de Santa Anna ' arrayed as a 
vice-queen. The magnificence of the painting 

1 " Mexico in Transition " by William Butler. 



364 Mexico and Her People To-day 

contrasted sadly with the poverty-stricken as- 
pect of the room and furniture. To him, how- 
ever, this could make but little difference, as we 
soon saw that he was totally blind as well as 
feeble and broken in spirit, with a tendency to 
mental weakness. ' ' He was buried in the ceme- 
tery at Guadalupe without honours or recogni- 
tion by the government, and his remains still 
rest there. As I gazed upon his tomb I could not 
help thinking what a contrast between his career 
and that of the patriots Hidalgo, Morelas, and 
Juarez. 

The early constitution had declared that the 
Roman Catholic religion should perpetually be 
the religion of Mexico. Nevertheless a struggle 
had been growing up between the clericals and 
liberals for many years with increasing inten- 
sity. It finally centred in a struggle over the 
sequestration of the church property, and be- 
came wider and wider until the whole country 
was involved and divided into two great parties. 
The liberals were probably just as good Chris- 
tians as the others but thought the Church had 
too much wealth. 

At this juncture there arose a pure Indian, 
of lowly parentage, who never saw a school un- 
til he was twelve years of age. His name was 
Benito Juarez. Although ever professing de- 







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A VILLAGE CHURCH 



The Story of the Republic 365 

vout faith, he early espoused the cause of the 
anti-clerical party. He was banished by Santa 
Anna and fled to New Orleans, but opinion 
changed and his sentiments became the popular 
views. The new constitution of 1857 declared 
the separation of church and state. Juarez had 
been elected President of the Supreme Court 
under Comonfort. The latter was compelled to 
flee the country and Juarez became president 
under the constitution, in 1857. Congress 
passed a law confiscating church property and 
civil war was begun, Juarez took the field in 
person and did not reach the capital until three 
years later. These three years have been called 
the years of horrors. The liberals were excom- 
municated by the church, and the papal delegate 
and several bishops were ordered out of the 
country in" turn by Juarez. Ministerial crises 
and resignations became chronic. Guerillas and 
robbers were bold and attacked many aliens, 
and foreign obligations were unpaid because of 
the impoverished condition of the country. 

Juarez alone remained cool in the midst of all 
these disturbances. The convention entered 
into between France, England and Spain for a 
joint intervention in Mexican affairs on the 31st 
day of October, 1861, brought new embarrass- 
ment to the Indian reformer. Underneath these 



366 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
acts of the convention the crafty hand of Napo- 
leon can be seen. The man who had accom- 
plished one coup d' Etat was a sworn enemy to 
all republican institutions. The pretext for this 
intervention was the collection of some money 
claims and reparation for alleged offences. 
Spain no doubt looked forward to a little re- 
venge. The Spanish fleet occupied Vera Cruz 
on the 14th of December, 1861, followed by the 
other armies. A conference took place at 
Orizaba with Juarez who acknowledged the 
money claims, and Spain and England with- 
drew their forces. The French remained, 
secretly supported and encouraged by the ex- 
treme church party, and advanced to and 
captured Puebla. Distracted and disheartened 
by the state of affairs, the prospect of a stable 
government made the way easy to place Maxi- 
milian upon the throne as Emperor of Mexico, 
and this was done. He and the empress arrived 
on the 28th of May, 1864. Maximilian was a 
liberal ruler and the Empress Carlotta won the 
people by her charming personality and benev- 
olences. 

As long as the French forces remained his 
throne was secure. The prompt and decisive 
action of Secretary Seward sounded the death 
knell of Maximilian's ambitions. Napoleon 



The Story of the Republic 367 

withdrew Ms troops, and Maximilian might have 
easily escaped had he not wavered between 
ambition and discretion, — the former even- 
tually winning. He met death with dignity and 
said '' May my blood be the last spilt for the 
welfare of the country. ' ' 

During all of these years Juarez maintained 
a semblance of authority and kept a cabinet un- 
der appointment although he was finally driven 
to the American border. Yet he could wait, for 
he had inherited from his dusky ancestors the 
qualities of patience, endurance and imper- 
turbability. He also had executive ability and 
an abundance of good sense. After the execu- 
tion of Maximilian he made a triumphal entry 
into Mexico. The country was impoverished. 
The short empire had added a national debt of 
$187,000,000. More than one thousand battles 
and skirmishes had occurred between 1863 and 
1867, and a hundred thousand Mexicans had 
been killed or disabled. The people were still 
restless and an increasing element began to say 
that he had been president long enough. He 
was unmoved, but kept steadily on his way try- 
ing to better the condition of the people, im- 
prove the finances and bring prosperity to his 
country. The iron constitution finally gave way 
and he died on the 19th of July, 1872, beloved 



368 Mexico and Her People To-day 

and honoured by his country. He deserved to be 
called the Washington of Mexico, for he laid the 
foundation of democracy for his successors. 
That its full realization has never been brought 
about was no fault of his. He had prepared the 
way for his successors to bring peace, prosper- 
ity and liberty to a country that for centuries 
had been crying loudly for such a boon. Juarez 
lies buried in the Panteon de San Fernando, in 
the City of Mexico. 

Upon the death of Juarez the constitutional 
succession fell upon Lerdo de Tejada, who filled 
the office of chief magistrate for four years. 
For the succeeding third of a century the his- 
tory of Mexico centres around the personality 
of Porfirio Diaz, who was the immediate suc- 
cessor of Tejada. 



CHAPTER XX 



THE GUIDING HAND 



" I SHOULD like to live fifty years to see the 
result of the seed I have planted, ' ' said Porfirio 
Diaz a number of years ago. It was not within 
the limit of human possibility that such a boon 
could be granted this amiable '* republican 
despot " but he lived long enough to see good 
results from the policies established by him 
and to experience his own overthrow. 

Succeeding to a government that had been 
in the throes of revolution ever since the patriot- 
priest Hidalgo first proclaimed independence 
on the 16th of September, 1810, President Diaz 
at once restored peace to the country that 
lasted for thirty years. Inheriting a bankrupt 
treasury from his predecessors, and a large 
foreign debt that had on several occasions 
brought about foreign intervention, he suc- 
ceeded in placing the finances of the country 
in a prosperous condition and accomplished 
more for Mexico than had been done in three 



370 Mexico and Her People To-day 

centuries of Spanish rule. He organized the 
army along modern lines and established the 
rurales which insured the safety of life and 
encouragement inaugurated by him were in- 
creased from three hundred and fifty miles to 
thirteen thousand five hundred miles ; telegraph 
lines from four thousand five hundred miles to 
thirty-five thousand miles ; the number of post- 
offices numbered two thousand three hundred 
and fifty instead of seven hundred and twenty 
as it was in 1876. Imports and exports were 
doubled several times, and the annual balance 
sheet revealed a comfortable surplus instead 
of a deficit as in former days. All this had been 
done and old obligations met in spite of the 
serious loss in exchange due to the depreciation 
in silver, and the fact that the heavy foreign 
obligations had to be met in gold purchased with 
silver at a low and constantly varying valuation. 
The life of Porfirio Diaz is fascinating. It 
savours of the days of knighthood and romance. 
We are reminded of those heroes of old around 
whom time has cast a glamour, for he has had 
adventures as exciting, escapes as miraculous 
and a life seemingly as charmed as any hero 
created by the masters of romance, and his life 
may well be termed " stranger than fiction." 



The G-uiding Hand 371 

i^ ... . ■ . I . .. -■ 

One is naturally inclined to be rather eulogistic 
in his treatment of such a character. 

The famous President of Mexico was born in 
the city of Oaxaca in an unimposing house on 
the Street of La Soledad, that is now used as a 
sugar factory, on the 15th of September, 1830, 
a day already celebrated in Mexican annals. His 
father. Captain Jose Faustini Diaz, was of 
Spanish descent and followed the occupation of 
innkeeper, but died when Porfirio was only 
three years of age. His maternal grandmother 
was a Mixteca Indian. The church and law were 
the only two occupations open to an ambitious 
youth in those days, and this young lad was in- 
tended for the former. He chose the law much 
to the disgust of his relatives but never followed 
that calling. The fighting blood in him im- 
pelled him to the sanguinary conflicts on the field, 
rather than the bloodless battles in the courts 
between contending counsel. 

About this time the war with the United 
States broke out and the future president, a 
youth of seventeen, volunteered but saw no 
fighting, although he thus early in life showed 
his genius for organization by forming his fel- 
low-students of the academy into a battalion 
for the defence of his home city. Benito Juarez, 
afterwards president, was attracted by this 



372 Mexico and Her People To-day 

youth and invited him to read law in his office, 
which offer was accepted. Thus was begun an 
association between two men who were 
destined in later years to occupy such a promi- 
nent place in Mexican history. Through the in- 
fluence of Juarez, the younger man was made 
assistant librarian and by the aid of the salary 
attached to this position, and money earned as 
tutor, he completed his course, and received his 
law degree. 

Politics and war seem to have divided the 
attention of Diaz from the very first with a pref- 
erence for the latter in early life. Diaz was a 
military genius. I can say this in all serious- 
ness. Although he never commanded a large 
army yet, under his hands, the rawest recruits 
soon became valuable troops. He was possessed 
of a personal magnetism and the quality of 
simpatica (which cannot be translated into 
English) that drew people to him and, when 
once aroused, they became his enthusiastic 
partisans. In a land of lethargy and procrasti- 
nation his movements were quick and decisive, 
and he soon became noted for night marches and 
early morning attacks. He never was overcome 
except by superior forces, and then only after 
his stores and ammunition were exhausted. 
Even when beaten and his army captured or 



The Guiding Hand 373 

separated, a few days of freedom would again 
place him at the head of a respectable force 
ready to take aggressive stand against the 
enemy. Had he been in command of a hundred 
thousand men, he would have met the situation 
with the same tact and ability. 

The first of the many political offices held by 
Diaz was that of Jefe Politico, or mayor, of the 
little Indian town of Ixtlan when only twenty- 
five years of age. Here he devoted his time to 
organizing the Indians into a company of 
militia, and this little body of soldiers formed a 
nucleus that proved a great help to him in the 
troublous times which followed. Later he was 
made Jefe of Tehuantepec where he showed 
great administrative ability. Soon afterward, 
in 1861, he was elected a deputy to congress from 
Oaxaca, but at that time would not sacrifice the 
excitement of war for the more prosaic duties of 
law-making. 

Captain Diaz had seen his first military serv- 
ice in the revolts against the notorious Santa 
Anna, of Alamo fame. He had the courage to 
sign a remonstrance against this usurper, and 
was compelled to fly for his life. Later, in the 
campaigns against Santa Anna, he was so suc- 
cessful that he had become almost a hero in the 
eyes of his fellow Oaxacans. At the beginning 



374 Mexico and Her People To-day 

of the French invasion, the rank of general of 
a brigade had been conferred upon him at the 
early age of thirty-two years, and he was as- 
signed to the defense of Puebla under General 
Zaragoza. It was due to his tactics more than 
anything else that the way was paved for the 
great victory of Cinco de Mayo, 1862, when an 
inferior force of Mexicans defeated a numer- 
ically larger army of veteran French troops. It 
was nearly a year later before the armies of the 
allied French and Austrians, greatly augmented 
by new arrivals, were able to capture Puebla 
after a two months' siege, the ammunition of 
the Mexicans had been exhausted. General Diaz 
refusal to give parol and was made prisoner 
but escaped after a short confinement. 

Because of the approach of the invading 
armies toward the capital. President Juarez had 
removed the seat of government to San Luis 
Potosi. He made General Diaz commander-in- 
chief of the armies south of the Valley of 
Mexico. Eeturning to his favourite haunts in 
Oaxaca, he soon gathered together an army and 
some money and marched forth on the offensive. 
By this time General Diaz had become such a 
formidable opponent that General Bazaine him- 
self, later of European fame, leader of the 
French forces, took the field against this young 



The Guiding Hand 375 



leader with the determination to crush him. He 
finally shut him up in Oaxaca and captured that 
city in 1865. The French general had carefully 
laid his plans for this campaign, having trans- 
ported a large number of guns, and was at the 
head of an army, Diaz claims, of sixteen thou- 
sand. The fame of this general and his large 
force created a panic among the troops of Diaz 
and his little army had dwindled to a few hun- 
dred. General Diaz was captured and taken to 
Puebla by his captors where he was prisoner for 
more than seven months in a former house of the 
Jesuits in that city. His escape is celebrated 
in Mexican annals, and his own account is as 
follows, although I have greatly abbreviated 

it: — 

' ' After taps for silence had been sounded for 
the night, I went to a room which was roofless 
and which on that account was used as a yard. 
I had with me three ropes, wrapped up in 
canvas, and I threw them onto the roof. I also 
had another rope, and I succeeded in throwing 
it around a projecting stone spout which seemed 
to be sufficiently firm. When I had satisfied my- 
self that the support was sufficient, I climbed 
up by the rope to the roof. My progress along 
the roof to the corner of San Eoque street, 
where I had made up my mind to descend, was 



376 Mexico and Her People To-day 

attended with much danger, for on the roof of 
the church a detachment and sentries were sta- 
tioned to keep watch. Gliding on all-fours I 
made towards the point where I was to let my- 
self down. I often had to stop to feel my way, 
for the roof was strewn with many fragments of 
glass which sounded when touched. Moreover, 
there were frequent flashes of lightning, which 
exposed me to being discovered. 

' ' I finally reached the wall of the church. In 
order to arrive at the corner of the street of San 
Eoque it was necessary to pass through a por- 
tion of the edifice which was occupied by the 
priest in charge of the church, and I was aware 
that shortly before he had denounced to the 
court martial some political prisoners who had 
bored a hole through their place of confinement 
into his dwelling, and as a consequence they had 
been shot the next day. 

' ' I let myself down into an upper yard of the 
priest 's house at the moment when a young man 
who also lived there had come in from the street ; 
he had probably been to the theatre, for he was 
in gay humour and was humming an air from an 
operetta. He did not see me as he passed, and 
I remained quiet until he had entered his room. 
When I considered that sufficient time had 
elapsed for him to get into bed, and perhaps to 



The Guiding Hand 377 

fall asleep, I climbed to the roof of the convent 
on the opposite side to that by which I had de- 
scended and pushed forward to the corner of the 
street of San Roque, and I arrived there at 
last. There is at the corner, in a niche, a 
statue of St. Vincent Ferrer which I proposed 
using to fix the rope by which I was to descend. 
The saint wobbled when touched, but probably 
there was inside the statue an iron spike to hold 
it. In any case, in order to be more sure, I 
adjusted the rope around the pedestal of the 
statue which seemed to be quite firm. I re- 
solved to alight in a vacant lot which adjoined 
and which was only fenced in. I did not know 
that there was a drove of hogs in this yard. As 
when I began the descent I turned somewhat 
with my rope, my back struck against the wall, 
and the inipact caused a poniard which I car- 
ried at my waist to fall from its sheath among 
the hogs, probably wounding one of them, for 
they set up a grunting which grew louder as 
they saw me descending among them. I had to 
wait for some time for them to quiet down. I 
then climbed to the top of the partition separat- 
ing the lot from the street, but I had at once to 
bob down again for just at that moment a 
gendarme was passing on his round, seeing if 



378 Mexico and Her People To-day 

the doors were well fastened. Wlien he had re- 
tired I sprang into the street. ' ' 

In a few days he had rallied around him a 
few faithful followers and captured the small 
garrison of Tehuitzingo. From this time his 
career was a succession of victories until the 
capture and execution of Maximilian. These 
victories and the firm stand of the United States 
government re-established republican suprem- 
acy. Early in 1867 preparations were made 
to regain Puebla which city was defended by a 
force of several thousand French troops. On 
April 2nd he made a feint with a few hundred 
men on the convent of ''El Carmen " which 
caused the army of the defenders to be con- 
centrated there. Then a concerted attack fol- 
lowed from several points, and the soldiers of 
Diaz drove back the hardened troops of the 
third Napoleon, and the flag of liberty waved 
over the city in the early dawn. He followed up 
the fleeing foreigners and a series of engage- 
ments followed in which Diaz was victorious. 
The war was ended by the capture of the City 
of Mexico after a siege of several assaults. 

From boyhood until the close of the empire 
in 1867, General Diaz had worked against great 
odds. He was by this time easily the most 
popular man in Mexico. One party at the gen- 



The Guiding Hand 379 

eral elections of that year nominated him 
for president, but he refused to run against 
his old friend and patron, President Juarez. He 
even refused an office and resigned his commis- 
sion in the army. In search of rest he retired 
to the place of his birth, and his trip from the 
capital was a triumphal journey. The citizens 
of Oaxaca received him with open arms, and 
presented him with the estate of La Noria near 
that city. Hither he went with the wife whom 
he had married by proxy during the war and 
spent a few years in comparative quiet. In 
1871 another presidential election was held. 
Juarez, who had failed both mentally and phys- 
ically, had advocated a number of unpopular 
measures, but was determined to have himself 
reelected to office. Diaz was also a candidate. 
When Juarez was declared elected, the '' Por- 
firistas " declared a revolution with the slogan 
' ' less government and more liberty. ' ' However 
Juarez died in a few months and the executive 
power temporarily fell upon the president of 
the Supreme Court, Lerdo de Tejada, who was 
afterwards elected to that office to serve the un- 
expired term. 

General Diaz refused reconciliation with this 
government, and, fearing trouble before the 
next presidential election, for Lerdo was an 



380 Mexico and Her People To-day 

active candidate, he sold his estate and left f or 
the United States after a " pronunciamento," 
called the ' ' Plan of Tuxtepec, ' ' had been issued 
to which he gave his allegiance, if he was not the 
author of it. This " plan " declared a presi- 
dent ineligible to succeed himself. By the time 
the revolution was well underway in several 
states, General Diaz had crossed the Rio Grande 
at Brownsville, Texas, with forty followers. 
These forty men increased to four hundred in 
a few days and they captured Matamoros on 
April 2nd, 1876. 

Learning that a large force had been sent 
after him. General Diaz decided to return south. 
He went to New Orleans and took a steamer 
from there, called the City of Habana, sailing 
for Vera Cruz, and passed himself off as a 
Cuban doctor. He was not suspected until some 
of the troops he had captured at Matamoros a 
few weeks before got on board the ship at Tam- 
pico. They immediately made arrangements to 
secure him on arriving at Vera Cruz. Although 
the ship was four miles from land, Diaz jumped 
overboard and attempted to swim ashore. He 
was picked up after nightfall in an exhausted 
condition, and taken on board the ship again. 
However the purser was won to his cause and 
concealed him in a wardrobe, where he remained 



The G uiding Hand ^ 

for several days on a diet of ship's biscuit and 
water. Tlie purser, as a matter of policy and 
in order to disarm all suspicion, invited the 
Lerdist officers into his cabin, where they 
would spend hours in playing at cards. Often- 
times the chair of the one sitting in front of 
the wardrobe would be tilted back against the 
door behind which was the man they would have 
given almost anything to catch. From his 
cramped position General Diaz was in torment. 
He could not stand upright, nor was he able to 
sit down. When the CiUj of Hahana arrived 
at Vera Cruz the chief of the coast guard serv- 
ice, who was the fugitive's friend, managed to 
smuggle in to him a dilapidated sailor's suit 
and a very old pair of boots. At the same time 
the chief sent word that a rowboat, in charge 
of a man he would recognize by certain signals, 
would come alongside for him. When the ship 
began to unload bales of cotton into barges, 
this boat appeared among them, and the noted 
prisoner made his escape to land. 

After several exciting adventures on the way, 
General Diaz again appeared at Oaxaca among 
his friends and ardent supporters. His popu- 
larity and prestige in Oaxaca have always been 
remarkable. Never did he appeal to his neigh- 
bours and friends of that state in vain. It was 



382 Mexico and Her People To-day 

not long until he was at the head of an army 
of four thousand ' ' Porfiristas ' ' — men who 
would follow their leader to the death if need 
be, and many of whom had fought with him at 
Puebla and elsewhere. The news of the escape 
of Diaz brought gloom to the " Lerdistas." 
Lerdo immediately marched his army south- 
ward. The two armies met on the 16th of No- 
vember, 1876, at Tecoac, and for a few hours 
the battle waged hotly and bitterly. The Ler- 
dist army, which was considerably larger, be- 
gan the engagement with every prospect of 
success. At the last moment Diaz led a charge 
in person which routed the enemy, and the 
result was a complete triumph for the " Por- 
firistas." 

Flushed with victory, and determined to 
press his advantage to the utmost, General 
Diaz promptly proceeded toward the capital 
with his augmented army. Panic seized Lerdo 
and his followers. He took all the public funds 
available, and, with his ministers, fled to Aca- 
pulco. Upon arriving there he embarked for 
San Francisco, and made no further effort to 
impede the progress of the Diaz forces. Igle- 
sias. President of the Supreme Court, upon 
whom the succession legally fell upon the death 
or resignation of the President, established 



The Guiding Hand 383 

headquarters at Guanajuato and issued a proc- 
lamation assuming the office of chief executive. 
Diaz at once marched upon Puebla, which he 
entered without opposition. City after city 
sent representatives announcing their adher- 
ence to his cause. The onward march was con- 
tinued without a halt until Guadalupe, about 
three miles from the capital, was reached. 
Here he halted for a day in order to get his 
forces into presentable condition to make a 
triumphal entry into the historic capital. 

It was on the 24th of November, 1876, that 
General Diaz made his memorable march into 
the City of Mexico. Eiding at the head of an 
army of several thousand armed men he made 
a triumphal entry into that ancient capital, 
while thousands gathered along the route to 
see this new adventurer — as he was styled by 
his enemies. The Plaza was packed with the 
populace. This son of an innkeeper, this man 
with the blood of the Indian in his veins, this 
hero of many battles passed through the por- 
tal of the National Palace and became master 
of Mexico. From there he issued a proclama- 
tion assuming the provisional presidency of 
the republic, until an election could take place 
in regular form and a constitutional ruler 
should be chosen. This was held in December. 



384 Mexico and Her People To-day 

With the government in his hands the result 
of that election was never in doubt. After a 
three months' campaign his authority was rec- 
ognized over the entire republic. Since that 
time Porfirio Diaz occupied that high ofSce con- 
tinuously, except for an interval of four years 
from 1880 to 1884, when Manuel Gonzalez held 
that title, until May 25th, 1911, when he re- 
signed. Diaz himself became a victim of the 
'' Tuxtepec Plan," forbidding two consecutive 
terms, and gracefully retired at the end of his 
first term, although urged by a large following 
to remain at the head of the government. For 
the first time in Mexican history was seen the 
spectacle of one President voluntarily relin- 
quishing the sceptre to his successor, and re- 
turning to private life without an effort to 
retain himself in power. Gonzalez entered the 
office one of the most popular men in Mexico, 
having been elected by an almost unanimous 
vote. Four years later he left it under a cloud 
of almost universal execration and contempt. 
During the four years of Gonzalez's adminis- 
tration Diaz was not idle, but served in the 
cabinet, as governor of Oaxaca and senator 
from Morelas. Isolated disturbances have 
arisen at times, but no formidable opposition 
arose against him until 1910. This revolution 



The Guiding Hand 385 



is treated in the succeeding chapter. The law- 
limiting the succession was revoked during his 
second term, and the length of office was sub- 
sequently extended to six years. At the vari- 
ous elections the reported vote was almost 
unanimous for Diaz. On December 1st, 1910, 
he was inaugurated President for the seventh 
consecutive term, or eighth term in all. 

Immediately upon first assuming the execu- 
tive office after the flight of Lerdo, Diaz issued 
a statement in which he set forth in clear terms 
his intention to restore constitutional order 
and institute reforms. He invited all factions 
and cliques to cooperate with him. This soon 
won the regard of the intelligent and honest 
partisans of all factions, and he early showed 
his impartiality by selecting his advisers irre- 
spective of party. It was not long until most 
of the Lerdistas and Juaristas were won to his 
cause. By this skilful handling of the leaders, 
he secured the good will of Congress in fur- 
thering his plans for reforms, and in organi- 
zing the finances on a better basis. New trea- 
ties were negotiated with foreign nations and 
able diplomatic representatives sent abroad. 

It has been said that the best peacemakers 
are those who have made war. Those who 
detest powder most are generally those who 



386 Mexico and Her People To-day 

have smelled it on the field of battle. To them 
— more than all others — are known the hor- 
rors and hardships of war, and what it entails 
upon the innocent and guilty alike. Even 
though a battle-scared hero may have profited 
by the advantages gained by military success, 
the tragedy of empty homes and nameless 
graves is known to and acknowledged by him. 
General Sherman said: " The main thing is 
to deal as hard blows at the enemy's forces as 
possible, and then cause so much suffering to 
the inhabitants that they will long for peace." 
A similar belief animated President Diaz. He 
himself has said in explaining his actions in 
suppressing brigandage: '' Sometimes we were 
harsh to the point of cruelty. But it was all 
necessary to the life and progress of the nation. 
If there was cruelty, the results have justified 
it. It was better that a little blood be shed 
that much blood be saved. The blood that was 
shed was bad blood ; the blood that was saved 
was good blood." Almost before they knew 
what was happening the professional malcon- 
tents found themselves in the grip of this mas- 
terful new leader. It was to this quality of 
firmness that he owed his pronounced success 
during the first years of his presidency. 

Several scattered uprisings occurred during 



The Guiding Hand 387 

the first term, most of them being fostered by 
the " Lerdistas." Lerdo issued a proclama- 
tion on the 24th of February, 1877, from New 
York, claiming to be the constitutional Presi- 
dent, and, a few months later, Iglesias did the 
same thing from New Orleans. Neither of 
these manifestos were looked upon seriously 
by the Mexicans, but they were in a great 
measure responsible for the tardy recognition 
of the Diaz government by the United States 
and other foreign powers. One revolt is 
worthy of mention because of its novelty. A 
part of the crew of the armed vessel Trinidad 
mutinied during the absence of the commander 
at Vera Cruz. They headed for a Campeche 
port, where they seized several thousand dol- 
lars of public funds. Wliile the leaders of the 
mutiny were ashore enjoying the money, a 
counter mutiny was led by the boatswain, who 
took the ship back to Vera Cruz and returned 
it to the government. 

Judging this man at a distance, we, who live 
in a country where even a third term is a 
^' bogie," are inclined to smile at these suc- 
cessive elections to the presidency, and dismiss 
the matter with the charge of '' dictator " and 
*' republican despot," with all the odium that 
those terms imply. President Diaz was both. 



388 Mexico and Her People To-day 

But, above all, he was, I believe, a true patriot. 
Whatever may have been his original motives 
in seeking this high office his later actions 
prove the statement. Responsibility will often 
develop a man, and that may have been true 
with Diaz. In securing the control by driving 
out Lerdo, and assuming the provisional pres- 
idency over Iglesias, who was the official desig- 
nated by the constitution in case of a vacancy, 
he only did what many had done before. 
Whether his retention of the office for so long 
was a good or bad thing for the country, the 
historian of the future will be a better judge. 
The accomplishments of Diaz were many. 
It would require a long enumeration to give 
them in detail. The very fact that he suc- 
ceeded to a government which had seen fifty- 
four different rulers, including two emperors 
and a number of avowed dictators, in the fifty- 
five years preceding his own accession, and 
ruled the country for more than a generation, 
is in itself sufficient to stamp him as an ex- 
traordinary man. Those were indeed troub- 
lous times in Mexico while we were celebrating 
the centennial of our independence. The 
strong spirit of Juarez had been broken by the 
long strain from 1857 to 1872, during which 
time he was nominally President. His succes- 



The Guiding Hand 389 

sor was a weak, ambitious man who acoom- 
plished little. Disorder everywhere, the coun- 
try overrun with bandits and a worse than 
empty treasury were the conditions when Diaz 
grasped the reins. It was not until nearly two 
years afterward that his government was form- 
ally recognized by the United States. Few 
men could have steered the country through 
such a state of affairs so successfully. He did 
it without repudiating any valid claims. He 
established credit by paying foreign obliga- 
tions rather than the salaries of government 
employees. He surrounded himself with an 
able cabinet, and started the machinery of gov- 
ernment in a business-like way. 

I do not subscribe to the doctrine of Shake- 
speare that all the world is a stage, and that 
each person is a player, for that would take 
away sincerity. Porfirio Diaz has been ac- 
cused of only acting a part. He could not 
always be acting, for his course was too con- 
sistent under many and diverse circumstances. 
As a young man he refused pay for military 
services because the government was so poor. 
He declined promotion over the heads of men 
older in the service for fear of jealousies. He 
refused remuneration after the close of the war 
of intervention, although not a rich man at that 



390 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
time. He turned a deaf ear to the emissaries 
of Maximilian, who wanted to place him in 
command of the Mexican army when that rnler 
abdicated, which would practically have made 
him President. He was a humane adversary, 
as is shown by his treatment of prisoners of 
war. He disregarded ceremony as much as is 
possible in a Latin country. He declined to 
live in the National Palace, but resided in a 
private house the most of the time, and at 
Chapultepec a part of the year. 

It is not to be wondered at that the man who 
rules with a strong arm will make bitter ene- 
mies as well as warm partisans. Likewise such 
a policy will always have its defamers as well 
as its supporters. Opinion is still divided 
upon Napoleon, and whether his high-handed 
methods wrought more good than evil. Hence 
it is that some can see nothing in Diaz but a 
tyrant, an enslaver of his people, and a man 
unfit for even life itself. They forget that 
peonage was not originated by Diaz, but was 
inherited from the Spaniards and supported 
by the voters of the country. They do not look 
into the conditions faced by Diaz when he first 
became President, nor the bloody history of 
the republic before that time. I believe that 
Diaz would have been permitted to serve his 



The Guiding Hand 391 

term had it not been for Ms efforts to control 
the vice-presidency, and the fact that his 
choice fell upon a man who was very unpopu- 
lar. Knowing that at his age the President's 
span of life was uncertain, the politicians 
wanted to control this office because of the 
succession. For this reason discontent and 
jealousies had been growing for several years. 
Diaz had publicly declared his intention not to 
seek another term, so that those ambitious for 
that office took him at his word and began their 
wire-pulling. This was in February, 1908. 
Then, in the spring of 1910, he announced that 
yielding to importunity he would accept an- 
other term. This was the greatest mistake 
in his political career. Had Diaz adhered to 
his previous declaration, he would have retired 
from the office of chief executive full of hon- 
ours. As it is he resigned under pressure, and 
left the City of Mexico unannounced and ac- 
companied only by his family and a few 
friends. He boarded a steamer in the harbour 
of Vera Cruz and sailed for Europe, where he 
quietly resided until his death. 

The personality of this dictator-president, 
who has filled such an important place in the 
world's history, is most interesting. As I sat 
in the great salon of the National Palace, 



392 Mexico and Her People To-day 

awaiting the appearance of President Diaz, I 
spent the intervening fifteen or twenty minutes 
in examining the room. On the high walls 
were pictures of Greneral Washington, the 
father of liberty in the whole of the two Amer- 
icas; of the patriot-priest Hidalgo, who first 
raised the standard of revolt in Mexico, and of 
Diaz himself. Then Diaz appeared — a man 
tall for a Mexican, solidly built, with white 
closely cropped hair and white moustache. He 
approached with an elastic, graceful and 
springy step entirely belying his almost eighty 
years. The Indian blood could easily be traced 
in his complexion and features. The inost 
striking feature of this man is his eyes, which 
seemed to look into the very soul of all he met. 
It is probably this intuitive perception that 
formed one of the key-notes of his success. 
He was always a most democratic sort of man 
and easy of approach, and impressed his sin- 
cerity on all those who talked to him. Diaz 
was always a tireless worker and methodical 
in his habits. He was abstemious, and it is 
probably due to this characteristic and his 
methodical habits, that at eighty years of age he 
remained as active and energetic as the average 
man twenty years younger. He kept in touch 
with the most remote parts of the republic, 



The Guiding Hand 393 

even to the most distant village. His advisers 
were often surprised at the vast knowledge he 
displayed in all matters of state. The private 
life of Diaz was practically above reproach. He 
was twice married. His first wife was Del- 
fina Ortega y Reyes, who died in 1880 before 
sharing in the full greatness of her husband, 
leaving a son and two daughters, all of whom 
grew to maturity. Three years later he was 
married to a daughter of Romero Rubio, 
whose full name is Sefiora Dona Carmen Ro- 
mero Rubio de Diaz. She is a woman who by 
her sweetness of character, kindly disposition 
and charities won a warm place in the affec- 
tions of the Mexican people. 

The end of the political career of Diaz is 
not without a touch of pathos, as well as an 
element of personal dignity. Broken in health, 
and deserted by many of his former friends, 
he resigned the office of President in the fol- 
lowing letter addressed to Congress : — 

'' Senores: The Mexican people, who have 
generously covered me with honours, who pro- 
claimed me as their leader during the interna- 
tional war, who patriotically assisted me in all 
works undertaken to develop industry and the 
commerce of the republic, to establish its 



394 Mexico and Her People To-day 

credit, gain for it the respect of the world and 
obtain for it an honourable position in the con- 
cert of the nations; that same people has re- 
volted in armed military bands, stating that 
my presence in the exercise of the supreme 
executive power was the cause of this insurrec- 
tion. 

'' I do not know of any facts imputable to 
me which could have caused this social phe- 
nomenon; but acknowledging as possible, 
though not admitting, that I may be unwit- 
tingly culpable, such a possibility makes me 
the least able to reason out and decide my own 
culpability. 

^^ Therefore, respecting, as I always have 
respected, the will of the people and in accord- 
ance with Article 82 of the Federal Constitu- 
tion, I come before the supreme representa- 
tives of the nation in order to resign, unre- 
servedly, the office of Constitutional President 
of the republic with which the national vote 
honoured me, which I do with all the more 
reason, since in order to continue in office it 
would be necessary to shed Mexican blood, en- 
dangering the credit of the country, dissipa- 
ting its wealth, exhausting its resources and 
exposing its policy to international complica- 
tions. 



The Guiding Hand 395 

'' I hope, senores, that, when the passions 
which are inherent to all revolutions have been 
calmed, a more conscientious and justified study 
will bring out in the national mind a correct 
acknowledgement, which will allow me to die 
carrying engraved in my soul a just impression 
of the estimation of my life, which throughout I 
have devoted and will devote to my countrymen. 
*' With all respect, 

" PoEFiEio Diaz." 

Europe continued to be the home of Porfirio 
Diaz for the rest of his days, for he was destined 
never again to see his beloved Mexico. For a 
time he resided in Spain, but the greater part 
of the time was spent in Paris. If he had 
amassed great wealth, as his enemies asserted, 
it was not apparent in his manner of living. 
He occupied modest quarters and lived most un- 
ostentatiously. It was in Paris, on the 2nd 
of July, 1915, that the many-times president and 
former dictator of Mexico breathed his last. It 
is significant of the change of opinion toward 
him that editorial comment upon his career and 
accomplishments was far more favourable than 
it was at the beginning of the revolution. 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE REVOLUTION OF 1910 

The year 1910 marked the completion of one 
hundred years of Mexican independence. In 
September of that year this event was cele- 
brated with all the pomp and pageantry cus- 
tomary in Latin countries. Nearly the whole 
month was given up to public functions in 
various parts of the republic, and especially 
in the City of Mexico, the national capital. 
Representatives of all the great nations of the 
world were sent there to assist in the cere- 
monies incident to the celebration. Dedica- 
tions of public buildings, magnificent balls, 
public fetes and exercises commemorative of 
independence and of the national heroes, who 
led the struggle against the Spaniards, were 
numerous. The 15th and the 16th of Septem- 
ber were the great gala days of this centennial 
anniversary. The further fact that added lus- 
tre to the event was the eightieth anniversary 
of the birth of President Diaz, who had estab- 

396 



The Revolution of 1910 397 

lished a substantial government after the many 
years of strife through which the country had 
passed between the years 1810 and 1876. In 
all the speeches made by foreign representa- 
tives the great work of this man was extolled, 
as well as the progress that had been made by 
the nation itself. 

The culmination of the centennial ceremonies 
was on the night of the 15th, just a little while 
before midnight. By half past ten o'clock the 
immense Plaza, which faces the National Pal- 
ace, was filled with an immense crowd of Mex- 
ican dignitaries, distinguished foreigners and 
the population of the city. It was a mass of 
living, breathing, expectant humanity. The 
many coloured lights formed veritable rain- 
bows of colour, and this added an additional 
attraction to the teeming, seething crowd. The 
door leading to the central balcony on the front 
of the National Palace opened, and President 
Diaz appeared. An intense stillness fell upon 
the crowd. In his right hand the President 
carried the national flag of Mexico, and imme- 
diately on his appearance the red, white and 
green lamps (the national colours) surround- 
ing the old bell with which Hidalgo first 
sounded the call to liberty, and which has 
found a permanent resting place here, flashed 



398 Mexico and Her People To-day 

into a radiant glow. As the strains of the 
national anthem floated out on the breeze, the 
President waved his flag, rang the bell and 
shouted ' ' Viva Mexico ! ' ' The great crowd 
went wild with excitement. The cry of ' ' Viva 
Mexico! " was taken up by the crowd near to 
the President, and then by those farther away, 
until the great shout might have been heard 
all over the capital. The bells of the grand 
old cathedral pealed forth their loudest tones, 
the factory whistles shrieked, sky-rockets were 
sent up in the air and every noise-making de- 
vice was turned loose. Pandemonium reigned. 
" Viva Diaz! " and '' Viva el Presidente! '* 
were mingled with the cry of ' ' Viva Mexico ! ' ' 
In the light of later events this wonderful 
celebration seems to have been a sham, or at 
least only on the surface. At that time a polit- 
ical volcano was simmering all over the repub- 
lic, and was just ready to break forth into vio- 
lent eruption. Diaz had already been re-elected 
for the eighth term, but the inauguration was 
not to take place until the fifth of December. 
In November the first outbreaks against the 
civil authorities occurred. An abortive rising 
occurred in Puebla in which blood was shed. 
Armed bodies appeared in the states of Chi- 
huahua and Sonora, in the northwestern part 



The Revolution of 1910 399 



of the republic. These bodies attacked the 
outlying haciendas, robbed the owners of horses 
and foraged at will to secure supplies for them- 
selves and their horses. The country in which 
these outbreaks occurred is ideal for the gue- 
rilla warfare that followed. Both of those 
states are mountainous and thinly settled, so 
that it was comparatively easy for even a small 
band of armed men to make a great deal of 
trouble and escape from a much larger force 
that might attempt to pursue them. 

Government troops were promptly dispatched 
to the scene of trouble, but it was difficult to 
catch up with the marauders and engage them 
in battle. Their outbreaks would first be heard 
of in one neighbourhood, and a few days later 
reports of trouble would be received from sec- 
tions quite remote. Additional armed bodies 
appeared in other sections, and it was not many 
weeks until the trouble began to present a seri- 
ous aspect. Many of the government troops 
sent against the insur rectos were either cow- 
ardly or were in secret sympathy with those 
opposed to the government. Wlienever actual 
engagements did occur the outcome was gen- 
erally in favour of the Federal troops, but the 
defeated ones were always able to escape into 
the country, where it was difficult for them to 



400 Mexico and Her People To-day 



be followed. The first battle of any note was 
fought at Mai Paso, when the Federals were 
routed, but a battle at Ojinaga a few days later 
was a decided defeat for the revolutionists. 
The failure of the government to stamp out 
the trouble promptly gave encouragement to 
all the disaffected ones, and the old spirit of 
lawlessness that once prevailed seemed about 
to break forth with all its animus and disre- 
gard of the rights of private property. 

The predominant figures among the insur- 
rectos were the Maderos, a wealthy family that 
owned great estates near the city of Torreon. 
In the presidential campaign that had just 
passed, Francisco Madero had been a candi- 
date for the presidency. He was thrown into 
prison, as that family asserted, simply because 
he dared to oppose the dictator who had held 
power for so long. The reason given out by 
the government was, of course, far different. 
Nevertheless all the disaffected factions of the 
republic rallied around this family, which did 
the principal financing of the revolutionists. 
A propaganda was conducted in the United 
States by the Maderos, and they obtained a 
great deal of encouragement from the majority 
of the newspapers of the United States, which 
had recently taken a position extremely antag- 



The Revolution of 1910 401 

onistic to the Diaz government. Francisco 
Madero established a revolutionary junta in 
El Paso, and large quantities of ammunition 
were sent across the border. A warrant for 
his arrest having been issued because of vio- 
lation of the neutrality laws, Madero with a 
handful of followers crossed into Chihuahua 
and entered actively into the campaign. 

*' No re-election " and " effective suffrage " 
were the two catch-words of Madero. It was 
very similar to that of Poriirio Diaz when he 
swept everything before him. At no time were 
there, according to the best reports that can be 
obtained, more than a few thousand men en- 
rolled under the Madero banner. These troops 
were scattered throughout northern Mexico, 
from Ciudad Juarez to the Pacific Ocean. 
Into their ranks were drawn many soldiers of 
fortune from the United States, as well as from 
Europe. A part of these men were no doubt 
really patriotic in their motives, while others 
simply grasped the chance of engaging in an 
exciting campaign because of the freedom of 
action which was offered, and also partly be- 
cause of the rewards that were promised by 
those at the head of the revolution. An eye- 
witness of the engagement at Tia Juana says 
that not over ten per cent, of the insurrectos 



402 Mexico and Her People To-day 

who captured that town were Mexicans, the 
remainder being made up of Americans, in- 
cluding some negroes, Germans, English and 
other nationalities. This engagement occurred 
on May 8tli and 9th, 1911. The Federals threw 
up breastworks of bags of sand, and the women 
and children were sent out of town to the 
American side. The fighting was severe and 
many were killed on both sides. On the second 
day the government forces yielded, and the 
rebels immediately pillaged the town and 
stores. 

Most of the engagements took place at towns 
near the border, at Ciudad Juarez, Nogales 
and Douglass, as well as Tia Juana. Two 
reasons were probably responsible for this fact. 
One was that it gave the insurrectos, in case 
they were defeated, an easy escape across the 
border, and another was that they were anx- 
ious to capture the custom-houses in order to 
secure the revenue from that source. This 
would also enable them to set up a de facto 
government, which might secure for them rec- 
ognition from countries that looked upon them 
with favour. Because of these fights on the 
border, and the reckless shooting by the com- 
batants, no fewer than twenty citizens of the 
United States were killed and twice that num- 



The Revolution of 1910 403 



ber wounded upon the American side, including 
men, women and children, none of whom had 
taken any part in the conflict. The camps of 
the Maderistas at all times contained numer- 
ous American correspondents, and the reports 
of the majority of them were favourable to the 
cause of that faction. The battle of Casas 
Grandes was all but decisive. In this engage- 
ment Madero took part and was slightly 
wounded, while the opposing leader lost an 
arm. But Madero was soon in the field again 
at the head of his forces. The movement had 
likewise spread, and the government faced 
trouble in the country even as far south as the 
Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 

The aim of the Maderistas was to secure rec- 
ognition as belligerents from the government 
of the United States, and it was also the desire 
of the government to put down the insurrection 
in order to prevent action by the United States 
to suppress the trouble because of the com- 
plaint of many Americans whose property had 
been destroyed, or was in danger of destruc- 
tion. Eailroad tracks were torn up, mines 
were tampered with and much other interfer- 
ence with the property of foreigners followed. 
European governments did not dare to interfere 
because of the Monroe Doctrine, and pressure 



404 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
was brought upon the government at Washing- 
ton to restore order. On May 8th there was 
great excitement in the United States follow- 
ing orders issued by the Department of War 
for the mobilization of American troops along 
the Mexican border. Almost twenty thousand 
troops were sent to Texas and centralized at 
San Antonio. From there they were sent to 
various places along the international border, 
but with positive instruction to take no part 
in the trouble on the other side of the Rio 
Grande. The press looked upon this action as 
preliminary to armed intervention, but no such 
result followed. This movement of troops was 
no doubt actuated by the motive of showing 
what the United States could do, and of im- 
pressing both sides to the conflict that foreign 
property must be left undisturbed and the 
rights of neutral parties carefully observed. 

Several attempts were made by the Made- 
ristas to capture Ciudad Juarez, the prosper- 
ous city directly opposite El Paso. The Fed- 
eral troops in the city were under the command 
of General Navarro, while the insur rectos in 
the final siege were commanded by Gen. Pas- 
cual Orozco. After a battle of several days, 
including considerable street fighting, General 
Navarro surrendered his command of fifteen 



The Revolution of 1910 405 



hundred men to General Orozco on tlie 10th of 
May. Shortly after this Madero himself en- 
tered the city as victor, and immediately set up 
a provisional government, giving himself the 
title of Provisional President. This gave the 
insurrectos control of the important custom 
house at Ciudad Juarez, and was a great vic- 
tory for their cause. ''On to Mexico " then 
became the popular cry, and preparations be- 
gan to be made for that long march. Torreon 
had fallen, and Pachuca, only forty miles from 
the capital, had been taken possession of by 
the revolutionists. Chihuahua and a number 
of other cities were besieged by them. 

At this stage Diaz and his advisers asked for 
an armistice in order that negotiations might 
be conducted. Each side appointed commis- 
sioners, and efforts were made to agree upon 
terms for settling the trouble into which the 
country had been plunged. The Maderistas 
refused to consider any terms which did not 
involve the resignation of President Diaz, 
Vice-President Corral and the entire cabinet. 
President Diaz, in order to avoid further blood- 
shed, the outcome of which would be very un- 
certain, finally acceded to these terms and 
agreed to resign before the end of the month. 
His resignation was delayed, however, for 



406 Mexico and Her People To-day 

some time, and disorder again broke out in 
several places. Even in the City of Mexico 
mobs formed, and practically took possession 
of the city on the 24th and 25th of May. Be- 
fore the close of the latter day President Diaz 
handed in his resignation, as the Vice-Presi- 
dent had previously done, and the government 
was turned over to Francisco de la Barra, who 
had been agreed upon as the Provisional Pres- 
ident until a new executive could be chosen at 
a special election. President Diaz secretly left 
the City of Mexico, and embarked on a vessel 
at Vera Cruz for Europe. A new cabinet was 
selected by Acting-President Barra, the major- 
ity of whom were suggested by Francisco Ma- 
dero. A wiser selection than Dr. de la Barra 
it would have been difficult to make for such 
a troublesome position. He had represented 
Mexico at Washington just prior to the troub- 
les of his country, and commanded great re- 
spect among the officials in that city. 

With the downfall of Diaz the real troubles 
of the Maderistas began. It is almost always 
true that the victorious are impatient to secure 
the fruits of their victory. Extravagant prom- 
ises had been made by the leaders of the rev- 
olution, which included free land, lower taxes, 
higher wages and a decreased cost of living. 



The Revolution of 1910 407 

It was impossible for the leaders to do these 
things at once, as it would take several years 
to work out such a program. Although Fran- 
cisco Madero held no office, he had been desig- 
nated as an adviser of the new government, 
and no appointments were made by the Provi- 
sional President without his approval. This 
brought about jealousies among the ambitious 
leaders, and there ensued more or less fighting 
in various sections of the republic in which 
considerable blood was shed. A few generals 
deserted the standards of Madero and main- 
tained fighting on their own account. A seri- 
ous outbreak occurred in the city of Puebla 
in which many were killed. Many political 
parties followed, as it had been many years 
since there was a definite party organization 
in Mexico. Some of these were very small, 
being made up simply of factional groups. 
The Church party again became prominent and 
started to take an active part in the approach- 
ing election. Bernardo Reyes, who had been 
sent on a mission to Europe by Diaz in order 
to get him out of the country, returned, and 
a strong party known as the Reyesistas arose 
and wanted to nominate him for the presidency. 
He left the country, however, before the final 
elections, claiming to be in fear of his life. 



408 Mexico and Her People To-day 

This voluntary expatriation of General Reyes 
on September 28tli, when, disguised as an in- 
valid, he walked up the gang-plank of a steamer 
at Vera Cruz, bound for New York, removed 
the only obstacle in the path of Sr. Madero. 
The election, which was held on Sunday, Oc- 
tober 1st, 1911, was as peaceful as such an 
event could be in most parts of Mexico. It 
does not necessarily mean that they were not 
inclined to fight, but there was nothing to fight 
about. The result was that the electors chosen 
were almost unanimous for Francisco Madero. 
To an American this election would seem 
almost farcical. For the purpose of the elec- 
tion the country was divided into districts, 
with one presidential elector for every five 
hundred inhabitants. Before election day two 
officials were appointed in each district. One 
of these officials compiled a list of the voters 
in his little subdivision. When he had looked 
up the voters in his district, and the names 
were printed and posted on some convenient 
street corner, this official's duties ended. Any 
one whose name did not appear on the printed 
list had a right to go to the proper authorities 
and state his case. All those qualified to vote 
received a ballot on which they were to write 
the names of the electors they wished to vote 



The Revolution of 1910 409 

for. The second official appointed took charge 
of the election booth on the morning of the 
election, and these booths were generally placed 
at the entrance to business houses or even in 
the parks. The voting places were supposed 
to open at 9 o'clock. The first seven voters 
who appeared, with the one commissioner ap- 
pointed, constituted the election board. In 
American cities one could imagine a great rush 
of voters to be among the first seven, but in 
many of the Mexican booths that number did 
not arrive until half an hour or an hour after 
the time the booth was supposed to open. The 
commissioner in charge sat at the table with 
a list of the voters beside him, and, as the 
voters appeared, they indicated the names of 
the electors for whom they wished to vote, and 
the commissioner then communicated this in- 
formation to the other members of the board in 
an audible voice. As a general rule there was 
no closed ballot box, but the ballots were merely 
laid in an open pasteboard box with a paper- 
weight on top to hold them down. Of secrecy 
or an attempt at secrecy there was none. Some 
citizens sent their wives to vote for them with 
the information that they themselves were in- 
disposed, and these ballots were accepted. It 
is claimed that the peons generally abstained 



410 Mexico and Her People To-day 

from voting, partly because of pride because 
they were not able to write, but more likely 
because of indifference since they had never 
been allowed such a privilege before. 

The only real contest in the election was over 
the choice of a Vice-President. Dr. Vasquez 
Gomez, who had been the principal aid of Sr. 
Madero in the revolution, had been cast aside 
by him in favour of Jose Maria Pino Suarez. 
The cause of the disagreement between these 
two leaders of the revolution was in part over 
the name of the party. Dr. Gomez insisted 
upon the original name of the revolutionist 
party, which was Anti-reelectionista, while Sr. 
Madero decided upon the name of Constitu- 
tional Progressive. Dr. Gomez continued as a 
candidate under the name chosen by him. 
Many also voted for the Acting-President, 
although he was not an active candidate. Other 
names of parties with tickets in the field were 
Pure Liberal Party, Red Liberals, Evolutionist 
Party and Reyesistas. An active campaign 
was carried on by several of the candidates, 
and Senor Madero visited many of the states 
in a speaking tour. Everywhere he was re- 
ceived with respect and at many times with 
real enthusiasm. Soldiers were present at the 
voting booths in many places on election day 




Courtesy of the Bulletin of the Pan-American Union. 

SR. DON FRANCISCO I. MADERO. 



The Revolution of 1910 411 

to prevent trouble, but there was very little dis- 
turbance in any part of the country. 

On the 6th of November, 1911, Francisco 
Indalecio Madero was inaugurated President of 
Mexico with elaborate ceremonies, and Pino 
Suarez was inducted into the office of Vice- 
President. The new chief executive of the re- 
public was born on the Hacienda del Rosario, 
in the state of Coahuila, on the 4th of October, 
1873, and was still a young man. He was the 
eldest of a family of thirteen children, and both 
of his parents were members of wealthy land- 
owning families. It has been estimated that the 
revolution cost the Maderos more than a million 
dollars, but they could well afford it, Madero 
married Senorita Sara Perez, the daughter of a 
prominent Mexican, in 1900. For several years 
he had been the leader of the opposition in the 
republic. His appearance was not that of a 
leader, for the new president was barely five 
feet four in height, with small hands and feet, 
and he wore a full beard. By way of preparing 
for his campaign Madero wrote a book entitled 
'' The Presidential Succession in 1910," which 
created such a sensation that it was finally 
suppressed by the Diaz government. It was a 
fearless arraignment of what he considered to 
be the evils of that administration. On June 7, 



412 Mexico and Her People To-day 

1910, he was arrested at Monterey and impris- 
oned for several weeks, not being released 
until after the election had been held. It was 
then that he published his political platform 
known as the ' ' Plan of San Luis Potosi, ' ' which 
was issued from that city on the 5th of October. 
Am^ong- the numerous reforms advocated by him 
were a more equitable distribution of the lands 
of the republic, free restitution of lands wrested 
from the Yaquis and a return of the members 
of that tribe to their native state, and the aboli- 
tion of the practice of admitting malefactors 
into the national army. He was frequently 
accused of being anti- American in his sympa- 
thies, but this accusation seems to have had no 
real foundation in fact. He showed himself 
humane and considerate at all times, but he dis- 
tinguished himself neither as a strategist nor 
as a military leader. 



CHAPTER XXn 

FROM MADERO TO CAEEANZA 

It was not long after the inauguration of 
Senor Madero as chief executive of Mexico until 
the forces of discontent again began to exhibit 
themselves. So many radical promises had 
been made by that leader that it was impossible 
to fulfil them immediately, and the impatience 
of his followers was such that they were not 
willing to await a gradual evolution. In mat- 
ters of administration the President showed a 
lamentable weakness, for he lacked both decision 
and firmness, most necessary qualities in the 
disturbed conditions in which Mexico now found 
herself. He proved himself absolutely inca- 
pable of managing private as well as public busi- 
ness affairs. His presence was most unimpos- 
ing, and he had a rather high, almost falsetto 
voice, that detracted from any attempt at public 
speaking. 

The kinsmen of President Madero were hard- 
headed business men, and they exercised an 

413 



414 Mexico and Her People To-day 

overwhelming influence upon him. He paid his 
brother out of the national treasury several hun- 
dred thousand dollars, claimed to have been ex- 
pended in support of the revolution. For this 
there was neither authority in law nor moral 
right. He developed a fondness for nepotism 
shown by his appointing a number of members 
of his own immediate family to high official posi- 
tions, which alienated a large number of his 
former warm supporters. Three of his kinsmen 
were included in his first cabinet. That he hon- 
estly endeavoured to carry out at least a part of 
his reform program is probable, but the neces- 
sary aggressiveness and capability were absent 
and absolute failure quickly followed. A social- 
ist writer characterizes him as '' the bourgeois 
idealist," and a '* political opportunist as well. 
. . . Almost without effort of his own he was 
lifted into power by the might of the people, as 
a straw is lifted by a wave, only to be dashed 
on the rocks of a dilemma created by his own 
insincerity." The land reform was allowed to 
rest while a strong Madero machine was being 
built up, and the elections were no freer or more 
representative than they had been under Diaz. 
The large surplus left by the preceding adminis- 
tration soon disappeared, without any resulting 
benefit to the people. 



From Madero to Carranza 415 

The first rebel leader to take up arms ag- 
gressively against the Madero administration 
was Emiliano Zapata, a guerilla leader in the 
state of Morelas. He had also been a thorn in 
the side of Diaz during his closing years, and 
had gathered together a strong force of armed 
peons. Refusing to submit to the new author- 
ity, he kept up a guerilla warfare which Madero 
was absolutely impotent to subdue. General 
Barnardo Reyes, a former member of the Diaz 
cabinet and a defeated candidate for the presi- 
dency, attempted a revolt which proved abor- 
tive. Northern Mexico has proven fertile 
ground for revolutionary disturbances, and it 
was here that the most serious opposition now 
arose. General Pascual Orozco here assumed 
the leadership, and Juarez, the usual goal of 
revolutionists, fell under his assault. The 
nearness of this city to the United States and 
the resulting confusion caused Congress to 
authorize President Taft to issue an embargo 
on the shipment of arms and munitions to 
Mexico. He also mobilized large bodies of 
troops on the border, as a warning to all Mexi- 
cans to refrain from injury to either American 
subjects or property. This embargo was later 
modified to permit the shipment of arms to the 
Madero government. A sharp warning was also 



416 Mexico and Her People To-day 

sent to both Orozco and Madero that they should 
scrupulously protect the lives and property of 
all foreigners. 

Just as the Madero forces seemed in a fair 
way to suppress the opposition, a new revolt 
arose under General Felix Diaz, a nephew of 
Porfirio Diaz, in the southern part of the repub- 
lic, with the backing of the old Diaz supporters. 
This revolt was successfully overcome and the 
leader captured. The death sentence imposed 
by court martial was suspended by Madero, and 
Diaz was removed to the capital for imprison- 
ment. This leniency doubtless proved the 
eventual undoing of Madero. Intercourse was 
maintained between Diaz and his followers, and 
another and even more vigorous revolution 
grew up under the very nose of the government. 
The students of the Military Academy of Tlal- 
pan, near the capital, broke into the prison 
where Generals Eeyes and Diaz were confined 
and released them from prison on the 9th 
of February, 1913. This was the signal for 
a general uprising of the troops stationed in the 
city. Diaz soon had a force of five thousand 
men under him, with abundant supplies of 
ammunition. General Reyes was killed in the 
action. 

For ten days sanguinary street fighting con- 



From Madero to Carranza 417 

tinued in the capital between the contending 
forces. Machine guns swept the streets in all 
directions. Few soldiers were killed, for they 
kept themselves in concealment, but thousands 
of lives of civilians were lost, many of them 
being women and children. This period is now 
known as '' the tragic ten days." At length 
General Victoriano Huerta, the leader of the 
federal army, deserted to the rebels. Madero 
and the Vice-President, Pino Suarez, were 
arrested in the National Palace and compelled 
to resign on the 19th day of February. Four 
days later, while being transferred to another 
prison, they were both slain under the law of 
ley fuga, or the law of attempted escape. Gus- 
tavo Madero, a brother, was also killed. Huerta 
had himself assumed the provisional presidency 
on February 18th. He accused the late Presi- 
dent of corruption and betrayal of the Mexican 
people, and promised sweeping reforms in the 
government. He was a man of strong will, in- 
domitable perseverance, and had proven him- 
self an able military leader on many a field of 
battle. Felix Diaz was compelled to flee the 
country for safety, although he had confidently 
expected to succeed to the office of chief magis- 
trate. 

The murder of Madero caused a profound 



418 Mexico and Her People To-day 

sensation throughout the entire civilized world. 
Especially did it arouse the people of the United 
States. Because of the near approach of the 
close of his administration, President Taft did 
not act on the question of recognition of the de 
facto government of Huerta. Counter revolu- 
tions almost immediately sprang up in various 
sections of Mexico, led by ambitious generals. 
All of them claimed to be good Constitutional- 
ists, for this was a popular term now. Practi- 
cally all of them, however, were for themselves 
first, and they were almost indifferent to the 
miseries inflicted upon their suffering country- 
men. They impartially looted and laid waste 
the land in the name of constitutional republi- 
canism. It was a return to the chaotic condi- 
tions existing in the early days of the republic. 
The most serious and aggressive opposition 
movement was the one led by Venustiano Car- 
ranza, governor of the State of Coahuila. This 
was not the first revolution in which Carranza 
had taken part. In 1393 he had led a revolt 
against the Diaz governor of his native state, in 
which he narrowly escaped with his life. He 
had joined the .Madero revolt, and upon its 
success became the governor of his native state. 
He belonged to the propertied class. Educated 
for the law, he had been compelled to abandon 




PRESIDENT CARRANZA 



Prom Madero to Carranza 419 

this vocation because of the weakness of his 
eyesight, so that most of his life had been spent 
on his ranch. In appearance and personality 
he was far more pleasing than his opponent. 
Tall and dignified, with high forehead and long 
gray beard, he made a good impression upon 
those with whom he came into contact. Car- 
ranza secured extraordinary powers from the 
state legislature, and published what was called 
the " Plan of Guadalupe," on the 26th of 
March. This plan was an absolute disavowal 
of the Huerta government and provided for the 
reorganization of the constitutionalist army, 
with himself as the chief. Like all *' Plans," 
this one provided for sweeping reforms in the 
government, and especially in the agrarian 
problem. 

Huerta experienced formidable diflBculties 
from the very beginning of his rule. The 
hostile attitude of the United States was one of 
the most serious. Although much pressure was 
brought to bear upon President Wilson to se- 
cure recognition of the Huerta government, 
such a course being strongly advised by the 
American Ambassador, this was refused, and 
the Ambassador's resignation followed. The 
President sent an unofficial personal repre- 
sentative to undertake an adjustment of the 



420 Mexico and Her People To-day 

situation. Promise of recognition was given 
upon the following conditions : — the cessation 
of hostilities, provisions and security for an 
early and free election, the promise of Huerta 
not to become a candidate for election, and an 
agreement of all parties to abide by the results. 
Because of Huerta 's refusal to consent to his 
own elimination, there followed the policy 
which was well named " watchful waiting.^' 

Although proclaiming a policy of non-inter- 
ference in the internal affairs of Mexico, we did 
interfere in the most vital way by advising all 
j&nancial centres to refuse the Huerta govern- 
ment credit. We did all that we could to pre- 
vent other nations from recognizing the Huerta 
regime. It was seemingly not realized that 
measures tending to undermine the central 
authority could only bring calamity. This had 
been demonstrated in the overturning of the 
Diaz rule, and the installation of the ineffective 
Madero as his successor. After having taken 
so much trouble to put him in, we did nothing 
to keep him in. Mrs. 'Shaughnessy speaks 
many times in her " A Diplomat's Wife in 
Mexico " of the serious and calamitous effect 
of the various ultimatums presented by this 
government. "It is all more like being on a 
volcano than near one," says she. *' Coaxing 



From Madero to Carranza 421 

of the Mexicans would have availed far more 
than threats. All the other diplomats urged 
that policy in order to prevent a crisis. One of 
the shrewdest said: ' Huerta's personal posi- 
tion is desperate. Whether he fights the rebels 
in the north or the United States, it is disaster 
for him. Only, I fancy he has less to lose in 
the way of prestige if he chooses the United 
States. His nation will make some show of 
rallying around him in this latter case.' " 

Huerta did not lack decision. Because of 
disagreement with the Mexican Congress, he 
effected a coup d'etat on October 10th to 11th, 
by the arrest and imprisonment of one hundred 
and ten of the two hundred and twenty-three 
deputies, forcibly dissolving that body. He then 
assumed dictatorial powers and called for a new 
election on the 26th of the same month. This 
election was held only in the states under fed- 
eral control, and returned a majority for 
Huerta. It also chose a subservient Congress. 
Huerta paid no attention to the strong protests 
of this govermnent, which insisted that the elec- 
tion be declared void. When the new Congress 
assembled, that body declared its own election 
valid, but those of president and vice-president 
invalid. The power of Huerta as provisional 
president was continued until July 5, 1914. 



422 Mexico and Her People To-day 



The revolutionary movement against Huerta 
was constantly gaining strength in the north. 
Zapata continued his guerilla warfare in the 
south, also. The Constitutionalists under Car- 
ranza had been strengthened by the adherence 
of a former bandit leader, named Francisco 
Villa. Whatever his character was, and few 
good words can be said for it, he did exhibit the 
greatest military genius of any of the military 
leaders. With the semblance of a smile ever on 
his face, save when aroused by passion. Villa 
proved to be the joUiest cutthroat of all the 
revolutionists. The stories of rapine and 
cruelty attributed to him, and many of them 
admitted by him, would cause a blush on the 
cheek of a buccaneer of old. He had slain 
scores by his own hands, and seemed proud of 
his record. In fact, he took a pride in boasting 
of some of the bloody deeds of his bandit career. 
This is the man with whom Carranza aligned 
himself at this time. 

Juarez was captured by the rebels in the mid- 
dle of November, and Chihuahua fell before the 
close of that month. Culiacan and Mazatlan, on 
the west coast, were captured, while in the east 
Victoria was seized and Tampico attacked. By 
the beginning of 1914 the Constitutionalists 
practically controlled all the northern states 



From Madero to Carranza 423 

from sea to sea. An advance upon the capital 
was now planned. When these forces ap- 
proached Ojinaca, a border town, the entire 
garrison of more than four thousand men and 
many women camp followers crossed the border 
into the United States. Excesses were com- 
mitted by both sides, and strong protests were 
lodged with the leaders of both factions by the 
American government. The export of arms was 
absolutely forbidden. The slaying of an Ameri- 
can citizen by the federal forces, in February, 
was followed by the brutal murder in cold blood 
of William S. Benton, a British subject, in the 
same month. This last deed occurred at the 
headquarters of General Villa, and gave rise to 
extended diplomatic representations to satisfy 
the legitimate demands of Great Britain. Had 
it not been- that the latter country was involved 
in a life and death struggle in Europe, still more 
serious complications for this government 
might have followed. We would either have 
been obliged to take active measures to secure 
satisfaction or Great Britain would doubtless 
have taken punitive measures herself, regard- 
less of the Monroe Doctrine. So long as we 
maintain this doctrine it imposes many obliga- 
tions upon us in favour of European powers 
who are restricted in their movements by the 



424 Mexico and Her People To-day 

gradual evolution of the doctrine originally pro- 
mulgated by President Monroe. 

The facts seemed to show that Benton had 
gone to Villa 's headquarters to protest against 
some of his depredations, and a controversy 
arose in which Benton lost his life. The United 
States appointed a commission of investigation, 
which was not permitted to proceed by Carranza 
and Villa. Foreign governments took the 
natural view that the United States should 
either assume the losses and stop the disturb- 
ances, or waive the Monroe Doctrine and per- 
mit them to seek retribution for themselves. 
As it was, definite responsibility was never 
fixed, although the evidence seemed to fasten 
the crime upon the ex-bandit himself. 

In March the Constitutionalists began the ad- 
vance upon Torreon, which city was looked upon 
as the key to the route to the Capital. After 
eleven days of fierce and sanguinary fighting, in 
which great valour was displayed by both 
forces, Torreon fell on April 2nd. A decree was 
immediately issued expelling all Spaniards, and 
indignities were heaped upon many of that 
nationality. A few days later there occurred an 
incident which overshadows all other events for 
Americans. This was the Tampico incident, 
in which a number of marines from the U. S. S. 



From Madero to Carranza 425 

Dolphin were arrested, while landing from a 
launch flying the United States flag. They were 
marched through the streets of Tampico under 
guard. Although the men were at once re- 
leased, and an apology for the arrest promptly 
made. Admiral Mayo deemed this insufficient 
and demanded a salute of twenty-one guns to 
the flag. President Wilson supported this de- 
mand and ordered the fleet to Mexican waters. 
Huerta agreed to the principle of the American 
demand, but imposed some unacceptable condi- 
tions, which included a return salute!. 

Huerta 's defence was that the boat landed 
at a part of the town then in the military zone 
without permission, that fighting was then going 
on and the city under martial law. He felt that 
he could not comply without wounding Mexico 's 
national honour and dignity, and infringing on 
her sovereignty, which he was ready to defend 
at all times and in all ways. So peculiar is the 
Mexican temperament that I verily believe 
Huerta would have declined to yield, had he 
known that he would have been placed before a 
firing squad as a result. An ultimatum does not 
fit in with the Mexican temperament. President 
Wilson laid the matter before Congress in a 
special message on April 20th, in which he asked 
for authority to use the armed forces of the 



426 Mexico and Her People To-day 

United States to secure reparation for the in- 
sult to the flag. While the debate was still on 
in that body, a force of marines were landed at 
Vera Cruz to prevent the unloading of a cargo 
of ammunition from a German steamer con- 
signed to Huerta. The vessel was turned back, 
but it eventually succeeded in effecting a land- 
ing elsewhere on the Mexican coast. The city 
was seized on April 21st, and nineteen American 
marines were killed in the conflict that followed. 
Over three hundred Mexicans were killed and 
wounded. Mr. 'Shaughnessy, who was in 
charge of the American legation, was immedi- 
ately given his passports and preparations for 
war were made by both countries. 

Outrages against foreigners immediately 
broke out all over the republic in an intensified 
degree. Federals and all the rebel leaders alike 
denounced the invasion, and they swore revenge 
on the Americans. Most foreigners who could 
left the country by whatever port it was 
possible to do so. It really seemed unfortunate 
that when there had been so many causes for 
armed intervention, a really trivial incident, 
the error of which was promptly acknowledged, 
should have led to the landing of troops. In- 
sistent urging failed to cause Huerta to elimi- 
nate himself, and yet the American troops never 



From Madero to Carranza 427' 



marched any farther inland. It was announced 
that the troops would not be withdrawn until 
peaceful conditions were restored. Huerta did 
not show any personal rancour against Ameri- 
cans. He personally visited the American em- 
bassy, then in charge of Nelson 'Shaughnessy, 
and invited him and his wife to his son's wed- 
ding. He said : " I hold no rancour toward the 
American people, nor toward his Excellency the 
Senor President Wilson," according to Mrs. 
'Shaughnessy. After a pause, he added : ' ' He 
has not understood." This explains a great 
deal of the American actions which resulted 
disastrously for both Mexicans and Americans. 
It was at this time that the three leading re- 
publics of South America, Argentina, Brazil 
and Chile, generally known as the ABC pow- 
ers, through their representatives at Washing- 
ton, proffered their services as mediators. 
The United States and Huerta accepted their 
services, and the delegates met at Niagara Falls, 
Canada, on the 20th of May. The sessions 
continued until June 20th, and, although a pro- 
tocol was drawn up, no practical solution of 
either the international questions involved or 
the internal troubles of our neighbouring repub- 
lic resulted. The United States insisted upon 
the retirement of Huerta, the salute by his suo- 



428 Mexico and Her People To-day 

cessor, that Villa and Carranza lay down tkeir 
arms; until these things were done American 
troops were to remain in Vera Cruz. 

During the spring and summer months of 
1914, the military successes of the Constitution- 
alists continued. Tampico was captured on 
May 13th, which compelled a withdrawal of the 
federal forces farther south. Carranza now set 
up his government at Saltillo. General Gon- 
zales captured Zacatecas after an assault last- 
ing four days in June, and Guadalajara was 
captured by General Obregon in the following 
month. San Luis Potosi and Manzanillo fell on 
July 17th and 24th respectively. These victories 
left the way clear for a campaign against the 
capital itself. Although there were persistent 
rumours of Huerta's resignation, there was no 
evidence of this in the City of Mexico. The 
presidential election was held on July 5th, in 
the territory over which Huerta still held con- 
trol, and he was declared elected by a small 
majority. A new cabinet was organized with 
Francisco Carbajal, Chief Justice of the Su- 
preme Court, as Minister of Foreign Relations. 
This was evidently only preliminary to the 
resignation of Huerta, which followed on the 
15th. Huerta sailed for Spain, but afterwards 
entered the United States. For a time he lived 



From Madero to Carranza 429 



on Long Island. Here lie was kept under con- 
stant surveillance, in the belief that he would 
attempt to stir up another revolution. He went 
west and was finally arrested at Newman, New 
Mexico, on June 27th, charged with violating 
our neutrality laws. For a time he was released 
on bond, but was again arrested at El Paso, 
where it was believed he was about to cross over 
the border. For weeks he was kept a prisoner 
at Fort Bliss. By this time his health had failed 
and he died at his home in El Paso, on the 13th 
of January, just three days after the date set 
for his trial. He was a full-blooded Indian and 
was bom at Colotlan, state of Jalisco, on De- 
cember 23, 1854. By profession he was a civil 
engineer,, but he had also seen much military 
service under Diaz. It was he who escorted his 
former chief to the coast after his resignation. 
There is no question that Huerta ruled with an 
iron hand, while at the head of affairs, and he 
forced the Congress to be simply a part of the 
executive department. 

With the resignation of Huerta the office of 
executive fell upon Carbajal. He at once 
opened negotiations with Carranza, asking 
assurances for an amnesty. For a time these 
proposals were ignored, and the army of the 
Constitutionalists continued its advance. At 



430 Mexico and Her People To-day 

the urgent suggestion of the United States, Car- 
ranza finally agreed to the demands of Carba- 
jal. Carranza was made Minister of Foreign 
Affairs and Carbajal resigned on August 13th. 
Two days later General Obregon entered the 
capital city, and on the 20th Carranza made his 
triumphal entry. 

The end of the time of trouble had not yet 
been reached in Mexico. Both Villa and Car- 
ranza could not be at the head of affairs, and 
Zapata thought he was ignored too much. Thus 
factional differences arose from the very be- 
ginning of Carranza 's administration. A 
meeting of the Constitutionalist generals was 
called in the capital, in order to decide upon a 
plan of action and choose a provisional presi- 
dent. By this time the Villistas and Carranzis- 
tas were in open conflict. Each claimed to be 
the true champion of the oppressed peons, and 
each denounced the other as a traitor to the 
Mexican people. 

In the succeeding open conflict between the 
two former associates, Carranza retained the 
support of the leading generals. Neither leader 
considered the great distress of the civilian 
population. Especially was this terrible in the 
northern part of the republic, where the con- 
tending forces had swept backward and forward 



From Madero to Carranza 431 



many times. No commissary was carried as a 
rule and the troops foraged upon friend and foe 
alike, for an empty stomach recognizes neither. 
The peons were impressed into either army at 
the will of the leaders, regardless of their own 
personal opinions, if they had any. Boys of 
twelve to fifteen made np a large part of the 
armies and they were simply pawns in the 
hands of the leaders. Cruelty of one leader was 
met by equally inhuman acts on the part of the 
others. Printing presses were kept running day 
and night turning out paper money, which acted 
as a circulating medium. An almost complete 
paralysis of industry and absolute lack of legal 
protection accentuated the condition. In the 
capital there was also a lack of food, and the 
calls upon the Eed Cross for relief began to 
multiply. From the interior came many com- 
plaints of churches desecrated, nuns violated 
and estates despoiled. Thousands of homeless 
and almost helpless refugees fled across the 
border into the United States. Many of the so- 
called " generals " of both factions actually im- 
peded attempts at relief. Merchants were 
robbed by them, and noncombatants were taxed 
for all they were worth. 

Carranza declared that he would not be 
candidate for the provisional presidency, but 



432 Mexico and Her People To-day 

would be candidate at the regular election. 
Villa now bitterly denounced Carranza and de- 
manded his elimination. A battle occurred be- 
tween the two factions late in September. 
When the Convention met on October 1st, it 
unanimously rejected Carranza 's resignation. 
At Villa's suggestion the convention was re- 
moved to Aguas Calientes, where it would be 
more under his own domination, with the aid of 
Zapata. In order to do this more effectively he 
surrounded the city with his own loyal troops. 
Under this compulsion the convention reversed 
its former action and accepted the resignation 
of the First Chief. When this action was re- 
pudiated by him, the convention declared itself 
supreme. Eulalio Gutierrez was declared pro- 
visional president for twenty days. He placed 
Villa in command of the troops, with instruc- 
tions to proceed against the capital. Carranza 
withdrew from the capital and set up his gov- 
ernment at Puebla. Later he retreated to Vera 
Cruz, which had been evacuated by the Ameri- 
can forces on November 23rd. Zapata entered 
the old Aztec capital, and a few days later both 
Villa and Gutierrez arrived, the latter taking 
up the functions of government. Fighting con- 
tinued between the forces of Carranza and the 
convention, with the latter generally victorious. 



From Madero to Carranza 433 

Puebla and several other cities were captured 
by them. 

Gutierrez continued in office more than the 
twenty days designated. In January, 1915, he 
was finally repudiated by the Convention, which 
assumed control in its own name, with General 
Eoque Gonzales Garza as provisional president. 
This is a slight evidence of the uncertainty of 
things in Mexico at this time. One day a man 
might be dining in Chapultepec, and the next 
day he might be eating prison fare as a fugitive 
from his late supporters. Gutierrez established 
his headquarters at Pachuca, bitterly denounc- 
ing both Villa and Zapata. As he did not imme- 
diately yield, and Zapata continued to act inde- 
pendently, there were four factions at one time 
claiming control of the country. Zapata moved 
out of the capital for a few days, when General 
Obregon, in command of the Carranza forces, 
entered. The heavy taxes imposed on foreign- 
ers brought indignant protests. Shops were 
pillaged, and no redress could be obtained. 
European nations protested in vain. 

The killing of John B. McManus, an American 
citizen, by Zapata forces, brought a strong pro- 
test from Washington. For the first time since 
the revolutionary uprising an indemnity was 
allowed in the way of reparation for injuries. 



434 Mexico and Her People To-da y 

Villa renounced Ms claims to the presidency on 
March 24th, and Garza was recognized by the 
Villistas as president. Villa, who was called 
Chief of Operations, continued his campaign 
against his former chief with varying success 
for a time, but was gradually driven farther 
north toward his old mountain haunts. For 
a time a condition of almost hopeless anarchy 
existed throughout the country, which was 
greatly augmented by the shortage of food in 
many places. 

The Conventionists captured Monterey. 
With defeats at Puebla and San Lorenzo, how- 
ever, Villa was compelled to evacuate the City 
of Mexico and retreat farther north. He was 
far from beaten, however, and soon afterwards 
won a decisive victory at San Luis Potosi. 
Here he proclaimed himself ' ' at the head of the 
presidency." When Monterey was recaptured 
in May, Villa moved westward. The taking of 
Guadalajara revived his waning strength for a 
time. In March, when the capital was retaken 
for a time. Villa was at the zenith of his power. 
The moral effect of being in possession of the 
capital meant a great deal. In the following 
month his prestige began a rapid decline. Ter- 
rific fighting at Tampico, Celaya, Nuevo Laredo 
and other places brought him great losses and 



From Madero to Carranza 435 

no corresponding gains. Slight victories here 
and there did not compensate for the losses. 
The capital was finally evacuated and reoc- 
cupied by the Conventionists a couple of times. 

A Pan-American Conference of representa- 
tives of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Bolivia, 
Uruguay, Guatemala and the United States met 
in consultation in Washington to decide upon a 
course of action. Despite the apparently hos- 
tile action of Carranza, it was decided that 
recognition should be given to the faction which 
possessed " the material and moral capacity 
necessary to protect the lives and property of 
natives and foreigners. ' ' A few weeks later it 
was unanimously decided to recognize Carranza 
and the Constitutionalists. He was obliged to 
give his promise of protection to property and 
amnesty to all Mexicans, except the real lead- 
ers, and to proceed with general elections. It 
was felt that Carranza was the strongest man, 
even if not ideal. It was months, however, be- 
fore the United States sent an Ambassador to 
the country and complete diplomatic relations 
were resumed. 

On June 2nd the government of the United 
States, having grown weary of the *' watchful 
waiting ' ' policy, served a notice on all factions 
that if they did not adjust their differences and 



436 Mexico and Her People To-day 

" act promptly for the relief and redemption 
of their prostrate country " the United States 
would be " constrained to decide what means 
should be employed to help Mexico save her- 
self. ' ^ ' ' Mexico is no nearer a solution of her 
tragical troubles than she was when the revolu- 
tion was first kindled, ' ' continued the President. 
A truer statement could not have been made. 
The immediate effect of this message stimulated 
rather than lessened the conflict. Each leader 
was anxious to win a decisive victory before 
the intervention came, if it was to come. Car- 
ranza, himself, was unyielding on the subject of 
compromise and refused any overtures along 
that line. 

The recognition of Carranza aroused a deep 
feeling of hatred in the breast of Villa. It 
transformed him from an uncertain friend of 
the United States to a bitter enemy. On Janu- 
uary 11, 1915, the people of the United States 
were aroused by the news that almost a score 
of Americans had been killed by the Villa 
forces. On that day a train had been stopped 
near Santa Ysabel, about fifty miles from 
the city of Chihuahua. Nineteen Americans, 
most of them mine officers and engineers, 
were removed from the train, stripped of 
their clothing and valuables, and kiUed after 



From Madero to Carranza 437 



being lined up before a firing squad. Only one 
escaped in some miraculous way and brought 
the news of the massacre to El Paso. The 
American government made strong protest 
against this outrage and offered to send Ameri- 
can troops to assist in the pursuit of the 
murderous band. This offer was promptly re- 
fused, but the Carranza troops did pursue the 
bandits and in a fight some forty of them were 
killed. 

Immediately following the Santa Ysabel inci- 
dent public feeling in the United States, and 
especially in Congress, was greatly aroused. 
Eesolutions were offered in that body demand- 
ing an immediate invasion of Mexico, while 
others counselled aggressive action in some 
other form. A neutral zone was proposed, and 
the general trend of the discussion was that the 
policy of *' watchful waiting " should be laid 
aside. The State Department informed Con- 
gress that seventy-six Americans had been 
killed during the years 1913 to 1915 inclusive. 
In the three preceding years the number of 
Americans killed was forty-seven. During that 
same period almost half as many civilians and 
soldiers had been slain by Mexicans on the 
American side of the border. Shots aimed reck- 
lessly at opposing forces were constantly fall- 



438 Mexico and Her People To-day 

ing in the border towns, and American troops 
were powerless to prevent this for a long time 
until an agreement was fully entered into which 
was signed by both Mexican factions, although 
it was constantly being broken. These figures 
did not tend to lower the intense feeling exist- 
ing, which demanded a radically different 
course of action by the American government. 
For several weeks there was very little news 
concerning Villa and his movements, although it 
was generally believed that he had not moved 
very far from the scene of his recent crime. As 
a matter of fact he was planning a still more 
spectacular move against the United States. 
On March 9th, a band of about fifteen hundred 
bandits, headed by the arch- villain Villa himself, 
swooped down upon the border town of Colum- 
bus, in the state of New Mexico. Although 
some American troops were situated near Co- 
lumbus, the bandits succeeded in eluding them 
and reaching the town. It was evident that 
spies had informed Villa of their exact loca- 
tion. The telephone and telegraph wires were 
cut, and calls for help could not reach the out- 
side world. The post-office and several stores 
were raided, and a number of houses were set 
on fire. More serious than this was the fact 
that many residents were shot before the Amer- 



From Madero to Carranza 439 



lean troops reached the scene, and the greatest 
of brutality was shown toward the inhabitants. 
In all, eleven civilians and nine soldiers were 
killed, while the Mexicans lost twenty-seven of 
their own number. A large body of cavalrymen 
pursued the band for five miles into Mexican 
territory and succeeded in killing two score 
more, with a loss of only one of their number. 
Public sentiment in America was now aroused 
to a tenser pitch than ever before. Carranza 
expressed regret for the occurrence, but refused 
his consent for American troops to enter Mex- 
ico. His entire attitude was so unsatisfactory 
that it was decided to send a punitive expedi- 
tion into the country, but as a concession to 
Mexican opinion permission was granted to 
that country to send soldiers across the Ameri- 
can border under exactly similar circumstances. 
Carranza attempted to limit the forces to one 
thousand men, all of them mounted, and that no 
town should be occupied. These conditions 
were rejected, but it was announced that the 
operations would be confined strictly to the 
pursuit of Villa and his followers. This de- 
cision of the American government was sup- 
ported by a practically unanimous vote of Con- 
gress. 

The command of the expeditionary forces was 



440 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
given to G-eneral John J. PersMng. He was 
allowed an absolutely free hand in the taking 
of Villa, either dead or alive. The Mexican 
federal troops were finally ordered to cooperate 
with the American forces. The punitive expedi- 
tion crossed the border on March 15th. It was 
composed of two columns and numbered several 
thousand soldiers. The larger command of four 
thousand men started from Columbus under 
the personal charge of General Pershing. The 
smaller conmaand was under Colonel George A. 
Dodd. The Mexican town of Casas Grandes 
was made the base of the expedition. Three 
divisions of troops were sent out in as many 
different directions, and a protected line of 
communication was maintained with the Ameri- 
can border. By March 26th, all American 
troops had penetrated two hundred miles into 
Mexico and were near Chihuahua, where Villa 
had been active. The first encounter with Villa 
was by a force under Colonel Dodd, in which 
there were only a few casualties, but the rebel 
leader succeeded in escaping in a carriage. 

As the American line of communication was 
extended into Mexico, considerable difficulty 
was exx)erienced in providing the necessary sup- 
plies. A branch raUroad was finally granted 
to the Americans, which relieved this situation 



From Madero to Carranza 441 



to some extent. One of the most serious clashes 
was with the troops of Carranza at Parral, on 
April 12th. Two detachments of the thirteenth 
cavalry, under the command of Major Tomp- 
kins, had approached this city for the purpose 
of purchasing supplies, and to seek the privilege 
of making an encampment near the city. A 
messenger had previously been sent into the 
town to see the commander of the garrison, 
and he had been cordially received. Without 
warning, shots were fired toward the Americans 
by Mexican troops, and a shifting of the Mexi- 
can forces showed that they were attempting a 
flank movement against our troops. A fight 
followed during which the Americans withdrew, 
pursued by about three hundred Mexicans. 
Hostilities continued during the entire after- 
noon and did not cease until dark. At length a 
messenger appeared from the Mexican general, 
bearing a flag of truce, and apologized for the 
attack, but ordering the Americans immediately 
to withdraw. As American reenf orcements had 
arrived, this was refused. Two Americans were 
killed, while the Mexican losses numbered sev- 
eral score. 

Instead of humbling Carranza the Parral 
incident was followed by a demand that the 
American troops immediately withdraw from 



442 Mexico and Her People To-day 

Mexico. Operations came to a standstill, but 
the troops were retained there for some time 
afterward. A conference was held at El Paso 
between Generals Scott and Funston, represent- 
ing the United States, and Generals Obregon 
and Trevino, the Mexican representatives. At 
this conference it was decided to limit the 
American advance. While this conference was 
in session word came that another raid had been 
made by Villa forces on May 5th. The village 
of Glenn Springs in Texas, fifteen miles north 
of the border, had been the object of attack. 
Nine soldiers guarding this place kept the in- 
vaders at bay for three hours, during which 
three of the troopers were killed and two 
wounded. Another expedition was sent across 
the border, which quickly returned with a num- 
ber of prisoners, and a couple of Americans, 
who had been carried away captive, were re- 
leased. As a result of this raid the conference 
at El Paso was abruptly adjourned without any 
agreement having been reached. 

On May 22nd Carranza addressed a note to 
the State Department with an imperative de- 
mand that the American troops be withdrawn 
from Mexican soil immediately. The sincerity 
of the United States in sending this expedition 
was questioned, and the language of the note 



From Madero to Carranza 443 

was almost intolerable. In it there was a threat 
that Mexican troops would defend the country 
from invasion. Many hostile demonstrations 
were made toward American representatives in 
Mexico, and the American consulate in Chihua- 
hua was burned. As an answer to this note 
President Wilson called out the entire National 
Guard of the country, until the forces on the 
border numbered more than one hundred thou- 
sand men. Several raids were made across the 
border by Mexican troops, and as many expedi- 
tions crossed into Mexico in pursuit of them. 
All of these incidents added to the high tension 
existing along the border, and a number of 
American consuls left their posts. 

Mexican forces were concentrated near the 
American, border, and General Trevino sent 
word to General Pershing that any movement 
of American troops farther south would be a 
signal for hostilities. For a time war hung in 
the balance. The American government bluntly 
refused to withdraw the troops, on the ground 
that Carranza himself was unable to bring 
about order. The responsibility for hostilities 
was placed upon the shoulders of the Mexican 
government. On June 20th occurred the most 
serious encounter between Mexicans and Ameri- 
cans near Carrizal. A couple of troops of the 



444 Mexico and Her People To-day 

10th cavalry, under Captain Charles D. Boyd 
and Lewis S. Morey, while out on a scouting 
expedition, arrived within a couple of miles of 
Carrizal. A Mexican guide was sent into the 
town and permission requested to proceed 
through it. While a parley was proceeding, the 
Americans noticed that the Mexicans were en- 
circling them and placing machine guns in 
strategic position. The parley was ended sud- 
denly by the Mexicans and fire opened from 
that side. For two hours the conflict continued, 
with the Americans, numbering only eighty- 
four, at a great disadvantage. Fourteen troop- 
ers were killed or wounded and twenty-four cap- 
tured. Among the killed was Captain Boyd. 
The Mexican loss was greater, including Gen- 
eral Gomez. 

The situation was now more tense than ever 
before, if such a condition was possible. Car- 
ranza admitted that he was responsible for the 
order forbidding any greater advance of the 
American troops. This was practically an ad- 
mission that the Carrizal affair was the result 
of his own orders. The immediate release of 
the prisoners was demanded by Washington, 
together with any property taken from them. 
Offers of mediation by the ABC powers were 
refused. Awed by the presence of so many 



From Mad ero to Carranza 445 

soldiers along the border, tlie American prison- 
ers were released after a great many indigni- 
ties. The American line was shortened, partly 
for safety and partly to lessen the friction. 

A conference was arranged between Mexican 
and American representatives, which began its 
session at New London, in Connecticut, on Sep- 
tember 6, 1916. While the conference was in 
session there was evidence that Villa had again 
become active and had a considerable force 
under him. Chihuahua was again captured by 
his followers. In October the sessions of the 
conference were transferred to Atlantic City. 
The Mexican representatives showed them- 
selves unwilling to enter into any discussions, 
except with the understanding that the Ameri- 
can troops should be entirely withdrawn. It 
was not until November 24th that a protocol 
was signed by the delegates, which was in the 
nature of a compromise. The protocol provided 
for the withdrawal of Pershing's army from the 
Mexican soil within forty days. Each army 
should patrol its own side of the border, but no 
special arrangement was made for establishing 
a neutral border zone, which the armies of 
either nation might police. The United States 
reserved the right to send an army into Mex- 
ico to capture bandits who had invaded Ameri- 



446 Mexico and Her People To-day 

can territory. Carranza refused to sign the 
protocol as agreed upon in the conference until 
it was modified in some particulars. 

On October 22nd a general election took place 
to elect delegates for a new constitutional con- 
vention. Officials of the de facto government 
were not allowed to take part in the election or 
become candidates. This assembly convened at 
Queretaro on the 1st of December. This action 
did not end the revolutionary disturbances, for 
hostile operations continued and a number of 
small towns were captured by Villa forces after 
this. The most important of these was Torreon, 
which fell on December 22nd. 

Carranza seems to have secured a very firm 
hold on the Mexican government and normal 
activities are again being resumed. An elec- 
tion was held on the 11th of March, 1917, at 
which he was almost the unanimous choice for 
the office of the chief magistracy. He was form- 
ally inaugurated into that office on May 1st. 
The term of office has now been fixed at four 
years, and a President has been made ineligible 
to succeed himself. 



CHAPTEE ^ni 

THE SIERRAS AND BEYOND 

" Las Madres," says the Mexican, whenever 
he is asked the name of the lofty range of 
mountains that runs through the western part 
of the northern half of Mexico, and which sep- 
arate the lofty interior plateaus from the Pa- 
cific Ocean and the Gulf of California. This 
range of mountains effectually cuts off the west 
coast from the best developed part of Mexico, 
and for that reason this section is not so well 
known as those parts which are visited by trav- 
ellers. At the present time no railway has 
been completed across this range of mountains, 
but it will not be long until this disadvantage 
will exist no longer. This district includes the 
great states of Sonora and Sinaloa, the terri- 
tory of Tepic, and a large part of the states 
of Chihuahua and Durango. To-day it is al- 
most a counterpart of what California was 
before the gold rush of 1849 — little known, 
isolated and undeveloped — but with just as 

447 



448 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
great natural advantages. Dense jungles cover 
the lower levels along the coast, where water 
is plentiful, while great areas in the north are 
semi-arid. In the higher altitudes vast for- 
ests of pine and oak crown the serrated peaks. 
The population is generally sparse and scat- 
tered. 

In the future the main gateways to reach 
this part of the country from the United States 
will be El Paso, and Benson, Arizona. From 
El Paso it is a distance of a little more than 
two hundred miles to Chihuahua. The travel- 
ler has no sooner crossed the Rio Grande than 
the change is seen in the Mexican town of Ciu- 
dad Juarez, formerly Paso del Norte. This 
city was the objective point of the revolution- 
ists in the late trouble in that country, and was 
the scene of a great deal of fighting before it 
was finally captured. After its capture it was 
the seat of the temporary government of the 
Maderistas. For several hours on the journey 
southward there is nothing to be seen but the 
chaparral and desolate-looking hills, with just 
enough novelty in the little towns that may be 
passed to make the trip strange and rather 
old-fashioned. Big-hatted, shiftless peons stare 
at you from their leaning positions against the 
station walls. The ' ^ hee-haw " of a lone burro 



The Sierras and Beyond 449 

or the " cough " of a gasoline engine will be 
the only sounds to break the silence. 

The train rolls along through a narrow val- 
ley which is quite level, and with high table- 
lands all about. Then the route reaches the 
land of haciendas, where herds of cattle, sheep 
and goats may be seen. It is a land of deep 
valleys, with glimpses of majestic mountains, 
and sometimes with broad spreading plains as 
well, but the mountains are always in view. At 
length, after a ride of a little more than half 
a day, the train reaches Chihuahua, which is 
the principal city and metropolis of this section 
of Mexico. Chihuahua is not a very beautiful 
city; nor is it as attractive as many of the 
other Mexican cities, for its location and the 
climate are not such as can greatly be rec- 
ommended. It is destined to be a much larger 
city than at present, however, by reason of the 
mineral wealth surrounding it, and also be- 
cause it is the starting point for what will ulti- 
mately be the principal trade route between 
the United States and northwestern Mexico. 
Like Monterey this city has become very much 
Americanized, and that influence is noticeable 
in both people and architecture. 

Chihuahua is on the line of the Kansas City, 
Mexico and Orient Eailway, which, when com- 



450 Mexico and Her People To-day 

pleted, will form a direct route from Kansas 
City, Missouri, to Topolobampo, a new port on 
the Pacific. At the present time trains are run- 
ning from Wichita, Kansas, almost to the Mex- 
ican border, and two detached sections are in 
operation in the Republic of Mexico. One of 
these starts from a point near the Rio Grande 
and runs to Chihuahua. From Chihuahua 
westward this railroad, in conjunction with the 
Mexican Northwestern Railway, traverses one 
of the finest grazing sections of the republic. 
Broad prairies which are covered with grass 
stretch out on either side to the foothills, and 
form rich grazing lands. The vast ranges, the 
temperate climate and a fair average rainfall 
makes this almost an ideal country for cattle. 
Upon them are fattened the beef that feeds the 
country, and many animals find their way to 
the markets of the United States. It is a region 
of immense haciendas, which form almost em- 
pires in themselves, for they are larger than 
some of the principalities of Europe. One 
estate near Chihuahua would make a common- 
wealth as large as the states of Massachusetts 
and Rhode Island combined, with a small farm 
of a million acres besides. The Zuloaga family 
own a hacienda directly on this line of railway, 
which is thirty-five miles wide and nearly one 




'•%} 

!(.'• 



%, ' 



t ' 







The Sierr as and Beyond 451 

hundred miles long, and includes about two 
million acres. Most of this estate consists of 
fine grazing land, and it ships about forty thou- 
sand head of cattle each y«ar, as well as from 
three to six thousand mules and horses. A 
few years ago the late proprietor of this estate 
bought an adjoining farm for two hundred 
thousand dollars, and his method of paying for 
it is a good illustration of Mexican business 
methods. He secured silver coin for this 
amount, which weighed nearly six tons, and 
hauled it over to the seller in two great carts. 

The buildings of the Zuloaga hacienda, which 
I visited, lie about fifty miles west of Chihua- 
hua, in one of the most beautiful locations that 
could be found anywhere. They are near the 
foot of a range of low mountains, and in front 
projects out a plain that gently slopes down 
to a lake a couple of miles distant. Beyond 
the lake is another range of wooded hills which 
seem to complete the picture. Within the walls 
are the home of the hacendado, the church, the 
stables and a store. The church is a beautiful 
structure, artistic in its details, and all of the 
materials used in its construction were secured 
upon the plantation; and all of the work, in- 
cluding some magnificently carved woodwork 
and some creditable paintings, was done on the 



452 Mexico and Her People To-day 

premises and by those living there. The build- 
ings are all one-storied in height, with walls 
thick enough to withstand any earthquake. 
The rooms are large and airy, with extremely 
high ceilings, through which you might drive 
a carriage, and the parlours are nearly as large 
as public halls. More than three thousand 
peons are employed on this hacienda, most of 
whom live in buildings arranged in hig hollow 
squares just outside of the walls of the family's 
quarters. 

There are a number of small towns along 
this transcontinental line of railway, the prin- 
cipal of which is Miiiaca, a quaint little old- 
fashioned place. The inhabitants would rather 
attend a chicken fight than work or go to mass. 
From Minaca this road begins the real climb 
over the divide on its way to the Pacific coast. 
For scenic beauty it equals any railroad in 
Mexico, not excepting the ride over the Mexi- 
can railway from the City of Mexico to Vera 
Cruz, hitherto described. Deep cuts, high 
hills, and tunnels succeed each other, as the 
railroad climbs up on its way toward the line 
of perpetual snow. It passes through one of 
the best timber sections of Mexico, where tall 
pine trees, straight as an arrow, rise up for 
a hundred feet or more without a limb. Huge 



The Sierras and Beyond 453 

crags of fantastic outline, tall pines silhouetted 
against the low-hanging clouds and the mys- 
terious depths of the barrancas combine to 
form scenes of awe-inspiring grandeur. At 
dangerous points crosses on the trail tell the 
story of tragedies — of riders who have prob- 
ably stumbled into eternity without a moment's 
warning. 

This Sierra region of Mexico should appeal 
to the sportsman, for much game abounds. At 
nearly all elevations may be found the white- 
tail deer. The mountain lion, called tigre, 
lurks in the fastnesses of the mountains. The 
bear may be found wherever there are good 
feeding grounds. The wild turkey is i^lentiful 
in many sections. The Mexicans do not hunt 
much, so that there are many game birds. 
Quail are numerous in the foothills, and wild 
duck, snipe and curlew are exceedingly numer- 
ous on the lagunas and marshes of the coast, 
as well as in the lakes of the mountain region. 
Hunting is inexpensive, and it is strange that 
more Americans do not visit this unhunted re- 
gion. 

One of the strangest of the many tribes of 
Mexican Indians inhabit the valleys and bar- 
rancas of this part of the republic. These are 
the Tarahumaris, a timid race who rather 



454 Mexico and Her People To-day 

shrink from contact with the white people to 
any greater extent than is necessary. Occa- 
sionally these Indians may be seen on the 
streets of Chihuahua, whither they go to buy 
some things, or, perhaps, to carry a message 
for a Mexican or American. But they do not 
linger any longer than is necessary. They can 
always be distinguished from the other Indians 
because the men almost invariably have their 
legs absolutely bare in all kinds of weather. 
They also wear their hair long, and it hangs 
down over the shoulder like our red men, while 
the Mexican Indians usually wear their hair 
short. Their features are coarse, but their 
bearing has a kind of native dignity about it 
that attracts. One of their medicine men once 
cut his hair to get some new ideas. "While the 
new hair was growing he kept his head tied 
up to prevent his thoughts from escaping. I 
mention this to give an idea of the primitive- 
ness and simplicity of these strange people. 

The Tarahumaris pay no taxes or tribute to 
the Mexican government. They are quiet and 
inoffensive, however, and for that reason they 
are allowed to inhabit the mountain slopes and 
inhospitable barrancas in peace. Their houses 
are very simple. They are usually made by 
setting up forked poles across which other 



The Sierras and Beyond 455 

straight poles are laid, and then roughly-hewed 
boards are set up along the sides. Sometimes 
they are made entirely of small rocks. Many 
of them live in the natural caves which abound 
in that region, and of which I have seen scores. 
They are nomadic and change their domicile 
frequently, although the new location may be 
only a few hundred rods away from the old. 
Store-houses may be seen in which the family 
stores its surplus supply of corn and beans, 
which are the only food supplies cultivated by 
these people. Upon the mountains the men kill 
deer and squirrels, and these, together with fish, 
rats and little ground animals which abound in 
that region, constitute their principal meat 
supply. 

The Tarahumaris are not a sociable people, 
nor are they industrious, for they like too well 
to lie on their backs or breasts in the hot sun. 
They are great runners and have been known 
to run day after day, stopping only to eat and 
secure some necessary sleep. When they are 
travelling across the country one will seldom 
see them walking. Even on a mountain trail 
they usually keep up a trot. I have seen them 
running up a steep path where most of us would 
not want to walk very long without stopping 
to rest. The chief men of the tribes carry 



456 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
canes as their emblem of authority. If a man 
is charged with an offence a messenger is sent 
to him, armed with a cane made of red Brazil 
wood, and the person summoned would not 
dare to disobey the order. No writ issued by 
any court in a civilized land commands greater 
obedience. It is generally the older men who 
are entrusted with this badge of authority, and 
they are very jealous of the privilege. This 
method of designating authority is quite com- 
mon among the aborigines of the Americas. 
The Tarahumaris are very superstitious. They 
are afraid to travel after night because the 
dead are supposed to be abroad at that time. 
The shaman, as the medicine man is called, is 
a man of great importance among these super- 
stitious people. He is always present at all 
family celebrations, such as weddings and fu- 
nerals, and he is generally called in when there 
is sickness in the family. 

About one hundred and fifty miles southwest 
of El Paso, in the state of Chihuahua, is a col- 
ony of considerable interest to Americans. 
After travelling that number of miles of semi- 
desert land over the Rio Grande and Sierra 
Madre Railway from Ciudad Juarez, as dreary 
a landscape as one could imagine, the appear- 
ance suddenly changes as one approaches the 



The Sierras and Beyond 457 

lands of the Mormon colony that has settled 
here. Fearful of the results of the anti-polyg- 
amy agitation in the United States a few hun- 
dred followers of Brigham Young banded to- 
gether, and sought a new " promised land." 
They travelled in caravans that contained all 
their worldly goods until they crossed the bor- 
der into Mexico. Here they were welcomed, 
for farmers are what northern Mexico needed, 
and religious or ethical questions did not dis- 
turb the Mexican government. The colonists 
were exempted from taxes for ten years, and 
their implements were allowed free entry. 
Each colonist was granted a certain number of 
acres at low interest and on easy terms. 

The original colony has expanded into sev- 
eral settlements numbering more than five thou- 
sand persons. The principal colony is named 
Colonia Juarez, and it is a few miles from the 
station of Casas Grandes. The Mormons are 
splendid agriculturalists, and they sell large 
quantities of alfalfa, grains, potatoes and dairy 
products. They use the very latest of Ameri- 
can agricultural machinery on their farms. 
Every village has a graded school supported 
by a voluntary tax, and a large central academy 
is also maintained for higher education. They 
are devout followers of the Mormon prophets, 



458 Mexico and Her People To-day 

— these colonists across the Rio Grande, — al- 
though they claim that no open polygamy is 
practised. Each man will deny the possession 
of more than one wife. The excess of women 
with families over the men, however, and the 
fact that the Mormon man is thoroughly at 
home in more than one house would easily lead 
one to a different conclusion. To this must be 
added the knowledge that these Mormons left 
good homes in Utah for a tract of almost desert 
land in Mexico, mainly because of the efforts 
of the government of the United States to 
stamp out plural marriages. 

The other main route to the Sierra regions 
is an extension of the Southern Pacific Rail- 
road, which is known as the Sonora Railway. 
This railroad extends from Nogales, and it is 
destined to run to the city of Guadalajara, a 
distance of about eleven hundred miles. No- 
gales is a city of about three thousand inhab- 
itants, half of which lies on either side of the 
border line. A simple glance without any ex- 
planation would show the visitor which part of 
it belongs to the United States, because of the 
difference in the buildings and the energy of 
the inhabitants. From there the railroad runs 
south through Magdalena and across some fer- 
tile plains until, at a distance of almost three 



The Sierras and Beyond 459 



hundred miles from the border, it reaches Her- 
mosillo, the capital of the state of Sonora, 
which is the second largest state in the republic. 
Much of this state is useless for agriculture, as 
it is dry and arid, and a part is very mountain- 
ous. In other sections the soil is extremely 
fertile, and irrigation would render it inval- 
uable. Such projects could be carried out if 
there was as much enterprise on that side of 
the border as on the northern side. Near the 
Yaqui River the soil and climate are as well 
adapted to fruit culture as southern Califor- 
nia. There are many large mining enterprises, 
the largest being at Cananea, and nearly all 
are American enterprises. The trouble with 
the Yaqui Indians has greatly hindered devel- 
opment in Sonora during the past decade. Sev- 
eral parties of American prospectors and mi- 
ners were attacked and a number of Americans 
killed. The government finally deported thou- 
sands of the Yaquis to other sections of the 
republic, and their depredations then ceased. 

Hermosillo is situated on the Sonora River, 
in the midst of an agricultural district and sur- 
rounded by rugged mountains, where there are 
many mines of gold and silver. It is the seat 
of a Catholic diocese, for which a fine new 
cathedral has been built, and also has some 



460 Mexico and Her People To-day 

very creditable buildings. It is a city of per- 
haps ten or twelve thousand people, and is the 
largest city in the state. From Hermosillo this 
railroad runs to the port of Guaymas, which 
is quite an important commercial town, and less 
than a hundred miles from the capital. The 
Bay of Guaymas is one of the best on the Pa- 
cific coast, and the marine trade is quite im- 
portant. For a long time this town was the 
terminus of this railroad, but it is too far up 
the Gulf of California to ever become a very 
important ocean port. Within the last few 
years construction work has been rapidly 
pushed southward at a little distance from the 
coast, and through trains are now running as 
far as the city of Tepic, on the way to Guada- 
lajara. 

Not a great distance south of Guaymas the 
Sonora Railroad enters Sinaloa, a state nearly 
as large as Indiana. This state is destined to 
be a great agricultural state, as it is well wa- 
tered and contains a number of fine rivers. 
Besides the Fuerte, Sinaloa, Culiacan and 
Elota Rivers, there are a hundred or more 
smaller streams traversing it. It stretches 
along the Pacific coast for a distance of nearly 
four hundred miles, and has an average 
breadth of eighty miles. One-half of the state 



The Sie rras and Beyond 461 

is little known, and is traversed only by ob- 
scure and difficult trails. Cane and corn cul- 
ture have been the chief industry, but it offers 
good inducements for the raising of almost all 
kinds of grains. In undeveloped natural 
wealth, both agricultural and mineral, and in 
its splendid water powers, Sinaloa is unsur- 
passed by any Mexican commonwealth. An 
American land company has recently opened 
up a tract of two million acres, and is estab- 
lishing a colony that promises good results. 
The capital is Culiacan, a short distance from 
the coast. Heretofore the only outlet for this 
city of fifteen thousand has been a miserable 
railroad to its port, Altata, but the new line 
enables passengers to go by Pullman cars to 
all points in the United States. It is an old 
city, for the Spaniards found a considerable 
settlement there. They immediately estab- 
lished a town which was well fortified. The 
present city is quite attractive and possesses 
a little manufacturing. It is the residence seat 
of quite a colony of rich and cultured Mexi- 
cans, and a number of Americans interested in 
mining also reside there. 

Mazatlan, a little further down the coast, is 
the largest city and principal port of Sinaloa. 
It is a picturesque place, with its cathedral 



462 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
spires outlined against the sky, and coeoanut 
palms and thatched roofs below. The blue 
Cordilleras in the distance complete the pic- 
ture. A lighthouse at the north entrance is 
said to be the highest lighthouse in the world, 
with the exception of the one at Gibraltar. It 
is a city of about twenty thousand inhabitants, 
and the largest city on the Pacific coast. Al- 
though a great deal of shipping is done in 
Mazatlan, the harbour is poor and offers no 
protection to vessels. Plans have been ap- 
proved for a safe harbour, to cost several mil- 
lion pesos, in order to prepare it for the antici- 
pated increase in business. Whether the in- 
ternal troubles will stop the building of this 
much-needed west coast railroad improvement 
remains to be seen. Its completion will not 
only give an outlet for this rich region to the 
United States, but also to the City of Mexico, 
and the stimulus can already be seen wherever 
the railroad is in operation. There is not a 
richer section in the whole republic than these 
coast lands, but because of their isolation every- 
thing has been backward, and all work has 
been done in the very crudest and most primi- 
tive ways. The only development that has 
taken place is in mining, and most of the 
mines are even yet operated in the old-fash- 



The Sierras and Beyond 463 

ioned ways, because of the difficulty of trans- 
porting machinery and fuel. 

The territory of Tepic is almost as large as 
the states of Massachusetts and Connecticut 
combined. In natural resources it will com- 
pare with Sinaloa, for it is well watered and 
affords fine opportunities for agriculture. 
Some day the jungles will be transformed into 
orange groves and banana plantations, while 
the higher lands will produce rich harvests of 
grain and coffee. The water power could be 
utilized to turn the wheels of factories or to 
run the railroads which are so much needed. 

The capital city of Tepic, a municipality of 
fifteen thousand people, has been asleep, but 
will now be awakened daily by the noise of the 
locomotive. At an elevation of three thousand 
feet the air is fresh and invigorating. The 
climate is pronounced almost ideal by those 
who live there, and it is free from the fevers 
that prevail in the low coast lands. It does 
not differ in general appearance from many 
other Mexican cities, but is a quaint and inter- 
esting town. 

Separated from the mainland of Mexico by 
the Grulf of California and the Colorado River, 
lies that little known territory of Baja (lower) 
California. It is a long narrow peninsula that 



464 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
projects about eight hundred miles southeast- 
erly from the southern border of California. 
Its width varies from about thirty to over one 
hundred miles, with an irregular coast line 
over two thousand miles long bordered by nu- 
merous islands, and in size is a trifle larger 
than the state of Iowa. Lower California is 
mainly mountainous, with irregular plains 
along the Pacific coast, and smaller plains and 
valleys along the north coast and in some parts 
of the interior. In climatic and other physical 
features the northern part of the peninsula is 
very similar to southern California, with some 
local modifications. The southern end of the 
Colorado Desert crosses the border, and con- 
tinues down along the northern coast for some 
distance. Along the Pacific coast a low range 
of mountains recedes a short distance inland, 
and continues for some distance. In the south- 
ern part of the peninsula they become higher, 
forming the San Pedro Martir Mountains, 
which reach a height of over ten thousand feet 
above the sea. Vast desolate plateaus of black 
lava, which surround little gem-like valleys, 
are succeeded by extensive stretches of desert 
upon which nothing but the cactus will grow. 
The western coast is bathed by cool waters 
and fogs, while the eastern shores are washed 



The Sierras and Beyond 465 

by the waves of a warm inland sea, and have 
almost continuous sunshine. 

Lower California was one of the early dis 
coveries of the Spaniards, and was promptly 
placed in charge of the Jesuits, whose mission- 
aries were quite successful. They explored all 
parts of the peninsula and established mis- 
sions among the Indians, and at the same time 
introduced many of the crops and fruits of the 
Old World. They established three main trails 
throughout the length of the peninsula, one 
following each coast and the other running 
near the centre. These roads are to-day the 
only routes of travel, and, except for short 
distances, can only be pursued on mule-back. 
Most of the Indians who formerly inhabited 
the peninsula have disappeared, and the pop- 
ulation to-day is very small. Some of the old 
mission churches are still in use, while others 
are represented simply by fragments of ruined 
walls and choked-up irrigating ditches. 

Agriculture has never flourished to any great 
extent in Lower California. Numerous colo- 
nies have been practically failures, with the 
exception of some recent ones near the inter- 
national border, where water for irrigation has 
been obtained from the Colorado River. All 
of the peninsula has been traversed many times 



466 Mexico and Her People To-day 



by prospectors in search of gold, silver and 
other minerals, and a number of valuable 
mines have been located in various places. 
The general climate is hot and arid, as is evi- 
denced by the vegetation, although in the south- 
ern regions there are districts which have 
regular summer rains. As a consequence of 
the arid conditions the surface water is scarce, 
and is limited to isolated waterfalls or to 
springs from which small streams sometime 
flow for a short distance, and then sink into 
the earth. 

• The country is divided for administration 
into the northern and southern portions, with 
Ensenada, a small port on the west coast as 
the capital of the northern part, and La Paz, 
on the eastern coast, the capital of the southern 
portion. La Paz is the only city of any par- 
ticular size, and is a place of about six thou- 
sand people. The streets are well laid out, 
and there are some excellent stores and many 
comfortable houses. The gardens are filled 
with palms and various tropical trees, so that 
the city has quite a decided tropical appear- 
ance, although it is surrounded by an arid dis- 
trict. It is the seat of the pearl fisheries, which 
are quite flourishing in the Gulf, and the out- 
put of pearls is quite an important item. Tia 



The Sierras and Beyond 467 

Juana (Aunt Jane) is a small town on the 
border not far from San Diego, and it is, per- 
haps, better known than any other town on the 
peninsula. Several skirmishes took place 
within its borders during the recent revolu- 
tion led by Madero, and many of the partici- 
pants were Americans. 

Magdalena Bay, concerning which there has 
been considerable talk of the United States 
trying to secure as a coaling station, is the 
finest land-locked harbour on the Pacific coast, 
with a narrow entrance which is protected by 
the high headlands. The bay is about fifteen 
miles across, with low sandy shores, and would 
furnish a fine protection for scores of the 
largest vessels. It is also within sight of the 
regular sailing route of steamers bound for 
Panama. " For that reason it would be a very 
advantageous possession of the United States, 
if it could be obtained by negotiations with the 
Mexican government. 

The plant life of Lower California is differ- 
ent from that of any other part of the world — 
so naturalists say. There is a veritable riot 
of strange forms of cacti and other plants 
which manage to live without rainfall. The 
cacti vary from giant forms, which raise their 
massive fluted trunks to a height of fifty to 



468 Mexico and Her People To-day 

sixty feet, to little straggling species which are 
too weak to stand upright. Another peculiar 
form is the creeping devil cactus, as it is called, 
which has the appearance of gigantic caterpil- 
lars crawling in every direction. These plants 
do actually travel away from a common centre, 
as the stem sends down rootlets every little 
distance, and then the older stems in the rear 
die about as fast as it advances in the front. 
There are not many species of birds or ani- 
mals, and only such kinds as can live where 
water is scarce will be found. It is said that 
some animals have been found that never drink 
water, and even in captivity can not be taught 
to drink, as it does not seem necessary to their 
existence. 

Owing to its desert character the peninsula 
is very thinly peopled, and there are extensive 
sections where not a single inhabitant will be 
found. The most populous section is that 
south of La Paz, where the rains are more 
regular. A few small towns or villages will be 
found scattered around the coast, with a lim- 
ited number of prospectors and miners gath- 
ered in the interior. The effort to colonize 
Lower California has been a tale of unbroken 
failure for more than fifty years. A few rainy 
years will cause apparent prosperity, but the 



The Sierras and Beyond 469 

succeeding years may be rainless and disaster 
follows. Those who have studied Lower Cali- 
fornia say that it is not all a hopeless desert, 
but that there are possibilities of agriculture 
through irrigation in many parts. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

THE RUINED CITIES OF YUCATAN 

The Mayas (pronounced My-yah) were an 
ancient people of whom little is known. They 
dwelt on the broad plains of Yucatan and Cen- 
tral America, and built many cities, or govern- 
mental centres, for no ruins of private dwell- 
ings have yet been found. The groups of 
buildings resemble in no way our cities of the 
present day. They consist everywhere of 
temples and palaces of the reigning princes 
or caciques, of public buildings scattered about 
apparently at random, covering a vast area, 
with cemented roads and gardens intervening. 
The centres of the towns were occupied by the 
public squares and temples ; around these were 
the palaces of the priests and lords, and the 
outskirts were evidently allotted to the lower 
classes. Religion and government seem to 
have gone hand in hand among these primi- 
tive Mexicans. The Maya civilization had 
reached a height unexcelled by any people of 

470 



The Ruined Cities of Yucatan 471 



the western hemisphere prior to the coming of 
the white man. They were skilled in architec- 
ture, in sculpture and in writing. The priests 
had developed the science of astronomy to a 
considerable extent. They had studied with 
some success the solar system. They had de- 
veloped a calendar system and created a chro- 
nology. So far as these chronological ac- 
counts have been worked out they run back 
three thousand years or more. They reckoned 
time much as we do, from a fixed date, namely, 
the birth of Christ. The later dates of the 
Quirigua inscriptions are generally believed to 
be somewhere about the beginning of the Chris- 
tian era. 

The oldest of the ruins of the Maya race is 
said to be that of Copan, which is situated in 
Honduras, just across the border from Guate- 
mala. It also seems to have been the southern- 
most point of their migration, as Tula was the 
northerly terminus of their wanderings. Then 
comes Quirigua, in Guatemala, which is one 
of the most remarkable and inexplicable of all 
the ruins. Tradition sheds no light whatever 
on these ruins of Copan or Quirigua. The 
mysterious silence that surrounds these forms 
a void in the history of the human race. There 
are doubtless other ruins awaiting the trav- 



472 Mexico and Her People To-day 

eller and explorer in the wilderness around 
Lake Peten, in the northern part of Guatemala. 
The founder of the race was Izamat-Ul. '* To 
him were brought," says an old writer, '' the 
sick, the halt and the dead, and he healed and 
restored them all to life by the touch of his 
hand." Hence he was generally known as the 
Miraculous Hand, and in inscriptions is fre- 
quently represented by a hand only. 

In the extreme southeastern part of Mexico, 
on a small peninsula known as Yucatan, is a 
section which was at one time the abode of this 
progressive and migrating race known gen- 
erally among anthropologists as the Mayas. 
This distant province deserves far more men- 
tion than it usually receives from passing trav- 
ellers. Though possessing few natural attrac- 
tions Yucatan is a never-ending source of 
interest for the anthropologist and archeolo- 
gist. The whole peninsula is a vast limestone 
formation, with little or no surface water. 
Rain is infrequent in most parts, and one might 
travel for miles without crossing a river or 
brook, or even chancing upon a spring. In 
most sections of this peninsula the water is 
at least seventy feet below the surface of the 
ground. At the present time windmills aid 
the inhabitants of that section where the hene- 



The Ruined Cities of Yucatan 473 

quen, from which binder twine is made, is 
raised, but centuries ago such facilities were 
unknown. There were, however, in some places 
natural wells which reached down to the depth 
of what seem to be underground rivers, and 
it was near these that several ancient cities 
were located. At least a score of these ancient 
cities have been explored, of which the best 
known and most important are Palenque, Ux- 
mal and Chichen Itza. It is known that since 
the Spaniards first set foot on this peninsula 
many monuments and practically entire cities 
have disappeared. At one time, a contempo- 
rary writer asserts, there were destroyed in 
Yucatan five thousand idols of various forms 
and dimensions, thirteen huge stones which 
were used as altars, twenty-two smaller stones 
of various shapes, one hundred and ninety- 
seven manuscripts of all kinds, including 
twenty-seven written on deer skins. 

Chichen Itza, which is generally interpreted 
to mean * ' the mouth of the wells of the Itzas, ' ' 
seems to have been the leading city, and it was 
located near two of the largest natural wells, 
which are immense natural pits with perpen- 
dicular sides. It is probable that these phe- 
nomena attracted the Mayas in their northern 
migration. As the tribes quarrelled different 



474 Mexico and Her People To-day 

factions separated from the original body and 

established new cities as capitals. Thus Chi- 

chen Itza came into being. On this desolate 

soil, 

"... buried 'mid trees, 
Upspringing there for sunless centuries, 
Behold a royal city, vast and lone, 
Lost to each race, to all the world unknown, 
Like famed Pompeii, 'neath her lava bed. 



At every step some palace meets the eye, 
Some figure frowns, some temple courts the sky." 

Before Cortez landed on Mexican soil the 
star of these ancient peoples had already set. 
Their oldest cities had their birth so far back 
in the twilight of time that not even tradition 
was able to tell the history of the tribes, the 
causes that led to their decay or the time of 
their disaster. Some traditions were told to 
the Spaniards, but they are of such uncertain 
origin that very little credence can be placed 
in them. Upon the walls are sculptures which 
speak to us in an unknown language; hiero- 
glyphics, and the chiselled types of a people long 
since departed. The hieroglyphics would prob- 
ably explain all, but no interpreting key has 
yet been discovered to give an explanation to 
the writings. Some authorities assert, how- 



The Ruined Cities of Yucatan 475 

ever, that Chiclien Itza was inhabited at the 
time of the Conquest. A Spaniard by the name 
of Aqnilar was wrecked on this coast and lived 
with a powerful cacique for several years, but 
he left behind him no written memoirs. At 
any rate, it is known that the Spanish forces 
occupied this place for at least two years. At 
first the submission of the natives was com- 
plete, but after a time they rallied from their 
stupor, tiring of ministering to the insatiable 
wants of their conquerors, and much severe 
fighting followed. 

Of the two great wells at Chichen Itza one 
was used for the general water supply, the 
cenote grande, and the other was reserved for 
religious use exclusively, the cenote sacra. 
Picturesque indeed must have been the throngs 
of white-robed women who peopled the steps of 
the cenote grande at all hours of the day to 
fetch water for household purposes. They 
probably carried double-handled urns on their 
hips or shoulders just as their descendants do 
at this present day. From far and near all 
over Yucatan pilgrimages were made to the 
sacred well, which was on the outskirts of the 
city, just as pilgrimages are made to-day to 
holy shrines by Catholics and Mohammedans. 
It was this that gave the city its holy charac- 



476 Mexico and Her People To-day 

ter. Offerings of many kinds were made to 
the deities. It is said that in time of drouth 
offerings of precious stones and other valua- 
bles were thrown into it, and in specially pro- 
tracted cases human beings were thrown into 
it as sacrifices. Even after the time of the 
Spanish conquest there are recorded instances 
of pilgrimages to the sacred well for the pur- 
pose of sacrificing slaves to relieve a drouth. 
These victims were supposed to live even 
after they had disappeared beneath the sa- 
cred waters. A Spanish writer of the 
time asserts that this was done as late as 
1560. 

The Chichen Itza of the olden times, filled 
with pilgrims from far and near, would 
scarcely be recognized in the place of to-day. 
The jungle has gradually crept its way into 
the very holy of holies. Columns have been 
overthrown, and some of the structures have 
been almost lost in a tangle of thorns and 
creepers. Even in the last half century the 
destruction and disintegration has been very 
noticeable. To reach the place it is necessary 
to ride about fifteen miles over a rough and 
wearisome road. All around lie buried in thick 
jungle ruins of palaces and other buildings. 
Pyramid-like structures seem to have been one 



The Ruined Cities of Yucatan 47t 

of the favourite forms of building. The most 
imposing of these on this site rises sixty-eight 
feet above the plain, and each side is almost 
one hundred and seventy-five feet in length, 
the whole covering about an acre of ground. 
This structure is called the Castillo, although 
it was really a temple. It is made up of nine 
terraces of faced masonry, narrowing toward 
the top, each one elaborately panelled to re- 
lieve the monotony. On each side there is a 
broad stairway, with a flight of ninety steps, 
with stone balustrades, which are generally 
carved to represent reptiles. A stone building 
almost forty feet square crowns the summit. 
The northern fagade must have been very 
striking before time and the destroying hand 
of man wrought their work. There were no 
doors on any of the buildings, and no traces of 
hinges have been found. At the western base 
of the pyramid is the walk that leads to the 
sacred well. It is believed that on the top of 
this pyramid the sacred rites of the priests o£ 
their faith were performed, and it is said that 
the sacrificial victims were led down these 
stairways, then along the causeway and finally 
cast into the sacred well. It is easy for the 
imagination to picture the scene in all its 
splendour of white-robed priests, smoking cen- 



478 Mexico and Her People To-day 

sors, and — saddest of all — the victims be- 
decked with garlands of flowers. 

There are ruins of colonnades, courts, build- 
ings and other structures of which many col- 
umns are standing at Chichen Itza, and it has 
been called " the city of a thousand columns " 
by some writers. One of the most important 
monuments is the Nun's Palace, as it is called. 
It is not so large as others, but contains a 
greater number of apartments. It is said to 
have been the custom of these people to edu- 
cate girls of noble birth to the service of the 
gods, on their attaining the age of twelve or 
thirteen. Their service was similar to that of 
the Vestal Virgins, although the vows were not 
always perpetual. It was their duty to keep 
the altar supplied with fresh flowers and to 
sweep the temples. One group of structures 
is called the Ball Court, as it is believed to 
have been used for a game similar to the mod- 
ern basket ball. It consists of two perpendic- 
ular parallel walls from north to south thirty- 
two feet high, three hundred and twenty-five 
feet long and one hundred and thirteen feet 
apart. The ends of this quadrangle are each 
occupied by a small temple. In the centre of 
each wall, about fifteen feet from the ground, 
there are two stone discs with holes through 



The Ruined Cities of Yucatan 479 



the centre, wMch seem to have had a part in 
this or some other game. The vast propor- 
tions of this court, or tlachtle, would seem to 
indicate that this game was very popular with 
the Yucatecos. Some of the well preserved 
ruins present beautiful sculptured facades, to 
which names have been given because of the 
fancied resemblance to something. For in- 
stance, one has been called the ruins of the 
'' House of the Tigers," because of a frieze of 
stalking tigers divided by richly fringed shells ; 
another round building, known as El Caracol, 
'' The Snail," is the best preserved building at 
Chichen; " The Eed House," and the " House 
of the Dark Writing," are still other struc- 
tures. In all directions for several miles the 
bush is strewn with ruins. Crumbling walls 
and courts overgrown with jungle growth are 
encountered on every side, but because of the 
disintegration these once splendid palaces and 
temples are now little more than shapeless 
masses of crumbled masonry. The human fig- 
ures seen on these monuments have the usual 
types of the Toltec carvings on the plateaus 
of Mexico. The total area covered by these 
ruins has been estimated by some investigators 
as high as ten square miles. 

The next largest and most interesting city 



480 Mexico and Her People To-day 

of ruins is known as Uxmal, which was the 
capital of the Tutal Xiu branch of the Mayas. 
This city is located between low ranges of hills, 
perhaps one hundred miles from Chichen Itza. 
iWhen seen from an eminence a dozen or more 
imposing structures of white limestone are 
presented to view. This city, no doubt, sup- 
plied a very important part in the early his- 
tory of Yucatan — at least if one is to judge 
from its size. It is believed that this was the 
original city of the Toltecs. A dozen or more 
imposing structures of considerable size still 
■ stand here that can be identified, in addition 
to the large numbers of ruins which can 
scarcely be outlined. The most notable sanc- 
tuary of Uxmal, which is now known as the 
'^ House of the Dwarf," is over fifty feet high, 
and also surmounts a steep-sloped pyramid 
one hundred feet in height. Two stairways 
on opposite sides lead to this building. It is 
so named because the natives say it was built 
by a savage dwarf in a single night. Long 
after the city was abandoned this temple was 
held in especial veneration. The Spanish 
priests used to find offerings of cocoa and 
copal on it, and they attributed this to devil 
worship. Two lines of parallel walls, parts 
of which are still standing, enclose a court or 



The Ruined Cities of Yucatan 481 

quadrangle, which is similar to the Ball Court 
at Chichen. The group of buildings around it 
encloses more than one hundred rooms. All 
of the buildings seem to have been built on low 
platforms or terraces. There is also at this 
place a high terrace, or platform, that covers 
over three acres of ground, and on which is a 
second and a third terrace, upon the latter of 
which is the ruin of a building known as the 
Governor's Palace. This building is one of 
the finest samples of early American architec- 
ture still extant. It stands at an elevation of 
forty-four feet above the plains, and com- 
mands a splendid view of the city. Its exterior 
walls are decorated with sculptured masonry, 
in the making of which it is estimated there 
are upward of twenty thousand sculptured 
pieces of stone. The building is three hundred 
and twenty-two feet long, and is divided into 
three parts by two arcades which pass clear 
through. It is built entirely of stone without 
ornament to a height of ten feet, then comes 
a cornice, above which is a wall that is a be- 
wildering maze of beautiful sculpture. This 
frieze has a row of colossal heads, and is di- 
vided into panels which are alternately filled 
with grecques in high relief, and diamond or 
lattice work. All the lintels of the building 



482 Mexico and Her People To-day 

here are of wood in an excellent state of pres- 
ervation. 

At Uxmal there is a building called the 
" House of Turtles," because of a row of 
turtles used as ornaments in the upper cornice. 
It is the freest from ornamentation of any of 
the structures. The turtles are found sculp- 
tured at various places along the cornice. The 
" House of the Pigeons " is the name of an- 
other building, because of the fancied resem- 
blance to a dove-cote. The crest of the roof 
is perforated with many rectangular openings 
— but the resemblance for which the name is 
given is very fanciful. At this site there were 
none of the natural wells described at the other 
city, but these people constructed some natural 
reservoirs a short distance from the town in 
which the rainfall was collected, and which 
gave the necessary water supply for the people. 
Furthermore, some of the buildings seem to 
have had subterranean cisterns of large size 
under them. Heavy rainfall occurs here for 
about one-half the year, but during the other 
half there is practically no rainfall, and water 
becomes very scarce and valuable. The so- 
called '* House of the Nuns " is the largest 
building and bears the richest and most intri- 
cate carving at Uxmal. It is composed of four 



The Ruined Cities of Yucatan 483 

buildings, the largest of which is two hundred 
and ieventy-nine feet in length. The four 
buildings enclose a great court, with sides two 
hundred and fourteen and two hundred and 
fifty-eight feet in length, the entrance to which 
is through a high triangular-arched gateway. 
This building originally contained no less than 
eighty-eight apartments of various sizes. A 
number of writers believe that many of these 
buildings at Uxmal are comparatively recent, 
because of the appearance of the stone and the 
well-preserved character of the wood used in 
the construction. 

These structures are only a part of the ruins 
that still remain, for the jungle on either side 
hides the remains of what were once imposing 
buildings. Many of these have been literally 
torn asunder by trees, whose roots have forced 
themselves between the stones and pried them 
apart. No doubt this city once housed many 
thousands of people, but to-day it is without 
inhabitants. The pomp and glory of former 
times have disappeared; and all is silent save 
for the birds that nest in the trees and bushes. 

The third city of ruins, Palenque, is situated 
at a considerable distance south and west of 
the two just described, and not far from San 
Juan Bautista. Palenque, according to Char- 



484 Mexico and Her People To-day 

ney, was a holy city — a place for pilgrimage. 
In the carvings neither sword, spear, shield 
nor arrow appear. The representations are all 
of peaceful subjects, usually a personage stand- 
ing with a sceptre and with prostrated acolytes 
at his feet. From the expression one would 
judge that they were worshippers, and not 
slaves or captives. Their expression is always 
peaceful and serene and that of worshippers 
and believers. The city is built in the form 
of an amphitheatre, on the lowest slope of the 
lofty Cordilleras beyond. Its high position 
affords a magnificent view over the forest- 
covered plain below stretching as far as the 
sea. In all the structures the builder levelled 
out the ground in narrow terraces, on which 
artificial elevations of pyramidal forms were 
reared, and the hillside was faced with hewed 
stones. At Palenque there are in all ten build- 
ings in view, each one crowning an elevation 
artificially made. As one enters the grounds 
there are several buildings to the right and 
left, but directly in front are the remains of the 
Palace. At one time this building has been 
very large and imposing. Remains of a broad 
flight of steps that led to the imposing entrance 
corridor are in plain evidence. Flights of steps 
led down to the first patio, which was sur- 



The Ruined Cities of Yucatan i85 

rounded by lofty corridors with roofs of 
pointed arches and which led into small apart- 
ments. There were two of these patios in the 
Palace of irregular size. Double galleries 
which made a sort of cloister surrounded them. 
Gloomy entrances from these corridors lead to 
underground chambers, where there are tables 
which are called altars, beds and dining tables 
by different writers. A lack of system seems 
to prevail in the building of the Palace. On 
top of one of the walls two immense forest 
trees are now growing. In the central portion 
are the ruins of a tower, of which three stories 
are still standing, with many windows. It is 
a square tower ornamented to the north with 
pointed niches ; otherwise it is almost devoid of 
ornamentation. On the contrary the galleries 
are richly ornamented with medallions, prob- 
ably representing priests and priestesses. 
Many human figures are sculptured in low relief 
representing priests with mitres on their heads 
and in uncomfortable attitudes. The faces are 
oftentimes defaced in order to give an appear- 
ance of ferocity. Some of the figures of the 
deities are fantastic, monstrous and even ter- 
rible. 

The Temple of Inscriptions stands on a hill 
about fifty feet high. A magnificent view of 



486 Mexico and Her People To-day 

all the ruins is afforded by this elevation, as 
well as the broad table-lands surrounding. 
There are three large mural tablets covered 
with picture writing and hieroglyphs, supposed 
to be copies of the laws of these ancient people, 
in the building. Across a little valley over 
which an aqueduct leads the land rises in ter- 
races, and is surmounted with artificially made 
hills on which are the ruins of more buildings 
— two Temples of the Cross and the Temple 
of the Sun. The Temple of the Sun is almost 
perfectly preserved. The interior is one large 
room with a sanctuary at one end. In each 
of these are mural tablets which contain what 
is known as the Cross of Palenque. The cruci- 
form shape, such as the swastika and other 
forms, is not uncommon among aboriginal peo- 
ple, but this is what is known as the Latin 
cross. Whether this arose by chance through 
the invention of the artist, or the cross had 
some religious significance among these people, 
still remains an absolute mystery. Charney 
asserts that it is one of the symbols of Tlaloa, 
the god of rain, but other writers differ with 
llim. The body of the cross, which rests on a 
hideous head, is sculptured in the centre, and 
at the upper end are two human figures. On 
one there is an inscription of sixty-eight char- 



The Ruined Cities of Yucatan 487 

acters, which doubtless explain the ceremony 
represented by the sculpture. Again it is sur- 
mounted by the sacred bird of the Mayas, the 
quetzal. In another this place is taken by a 
representation of the sun with its spreading 
rays. Where did the Mayas get their idea of 
the cross so sacred among Christian people? 
No one has yet been able to answer this ques- 
tion satisfactorily. 

Who built these structures? For what pur- 
pose were they reared? Various are the theo- 
ries, and many are the speculations covering 
them. But authentic information is absolutely 
wanting, and the passing years shed little 
light. The modern Yucatecos are an attractive 
people. No people in the world are pleasanter 
or have more delightful manners than they. 
The young women have a winning grace and 
charm that is peculiarly their own. Their cos- 
tume is not greatly unlike that of the Tehuanas 
— and it is fully as unique and becoming. It 
is quite probable that their customs and char- 
acteristics have not changed much since the 
Spanish occupation. They have always been 
an independent people, and have caused much 
more trouble than the majority of the aborig- 
inal tribes of Mexico. 



CHAPTEE XXV 

THE MEXICO OF TO-DAY 

That Mexico is a very human country and 
not without her faults has been abundantly 
proved by the events of the past few years. 
The greatest of these, however, are not entirely 
the fault of the present generation of nation 
builders. The original Spanish population was 
composed almost wholly of warriors and ad- 
venturers, and even malefactors. They came to 
secure easy wealth and to ^exploit the original 
population of the country. They were not set- 
tlers or pioneers in the best sense of the words. 
Upon this unfortunate heredity there was 
superimposed three centuries of the worst of 
Spanish misrule. These statements explain the 
primary causes of the elements of character 
that have made possible such an unfortunate 
condition as developed in our neighbouring re- 
public. 

A transformation cannot be wrought in a 
nation in a decade, or even in a generation. It 



The Mexico of To-day 489 

is doubtful if Mexico is ready for a really demo- 
cratic form of g^overnment. The wrongs of the 
peon have been appalling, but with more than 
four out of every five unable to read or write, 
and with a large part of the remaining fifteen 
per cent, poorly trained for that form of govern- 
ment, a real government by the entire people is 
practically impossible. It is bound to drift into 
the hands of a few. If these few are dema- 
gogues or unscrupulous persons, then may 
Providence have mercy on the poor people. A 
really benevolent dictator, if such can be found, 
who will develop the natural resources and un- 
fold the human possibilities, will be a far more 
practical solution. With the passing of time 
the country and people would then be advanced 
to where a genuine democracy would be practi- 
cal. We may theorize ad libitum, but the fact 
remains that there are certain practical things 
and certain traits in human nature that must'be 
taken into consideration in determining such 
great questions. In our own country, with its 
great degree of intelligence and a century and 
almost a half of democracy, practical oligarchy 
has grown up in more than one community be- 
cause of the indifference alone of the voters, 
and not the ignorance. Great and powerful 
political machines are nothing more than a 



490 Mexico and Her People To-day 

form of oligarchy by which a group of men 
perpetuate themselves in power and impose 
their (/wn selfish will upon a subservient com- 
munity. How much greater the opportunity 
where ignorance is broadcast and those who 
seize the reins of power are likely to be far less 
scrupulous. 

The Diaz administration was far from being 
an ideal one. It showed much too little interest 
in the moral and mental development of the 
masses. And yet it was so greatly superior to 
any government before or after, and not a whit 
more autocratic, that it affords a good example 
for illustration. The establishment of a govern- 
ment that for almost a third of a century com- 
manded obedience at home and respect abroad 
was responsible for a great mutation in Mexico. 
It was an absolute republic and under a strong 
controlling hand. It was the family govern- 
ment applied to the state, for it was very pater- 
nal in its rule. And yet the real accomplish- 
ments of those years in Mexico were marvellous. 
Americans who lived there during that time 
waxed eloquent in describing the great change 
for the better. Whereas formerly people hesi- 
tated to invest money for fear of political 
changes, investments in that country began to 
be looked upon as safe, and Mexican securities 



The Mexico of To-day 491 

were given a fixed value on the bourses of the 
world. 

Modern luxuries and conveniences were being 
introduced everywhere. The people were 
simply installing in a hurry the things that 
other countries had been acquiring for the half 
of a century. Every city was bestirring herself, 
and electric light plants, modern sewerage sys- 
tems and water works were being constructed 
as rapidly as things can move in this land of 
procrastination. Old and crude methods of 
power were being replaced by up-to-date ma- 
chinery in homes and manufacturing plants. 
Electric railways were replacing the mule tram 
lines, and the merry hum of the trolley was fast 
succeeding the bray of the long-eared motor 
just mentioned. Mexico had lagged behind so 
long that she has had quite a distance to go, and 
it will be a long while before she can entirely 
catch up with the head of the procession. Mate- 
rial wealth was increasing. Better wages were 
being paid, and the surplus was being expended 
for more and better goods. The wants of the 
great bulk of the people are so few that it must 
naturally be a long time before there could bo 
a great change in their method of living; but 
many of their children were being educated, and 
that in itself worked wonders in their uplifting. 



492 Mexico and Her People To-day 

For more than twenty years the finances of 
the government had shown an annual surplus. 
What a contrast to all the years of the republic 
before that time ! In 1876 the total revenue of 
the government was but $19,000,000 silver. 
For the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1910, the 
year of the revolution, this had increased to 
$53,164,242 United States gold. From a yearly 
deficit a surplus had been evolved which annu- 
ally amounted to several million dollars. The 
total cash in the treasury at the date of the 
above report amounted to $37,043,857 gold. 
This statement shows a healthy condition of 
affairs. The government was finding willing 
buyers for its bonds, and all its obligations were 
met promptly for a number of years. Success- 
fully establishing the gold standard was a great 
achievement in itself. Prior to that time Mexi- 
can silver had varied from $2.05 to $2.40 for a 
gold dollar, and aU business had been unsettled 
as a result. The government built up a gold 
surplus and established a rate of exchange of 
two silver dollars for one of gold, and all this 
was done without any friction or disturbance. 

It will doubtless be a number of years before 
so satisfactory a financial situation will again 
be reached. The great world war will so un- 
settle the financial powers of European nations 



The Mexico of To-day 493 

that help will not come quickly from there, and 
American investors have had so many unsatis- 
factory experiences that nothing but the pros- 
pect of large returns will induce them to grant 
the necessary capital for the restoration and 
upbuilding of the public utilities and industrial 
enterprises. It has been estimated that Ameri- 
can money invested in Mexico totals more than 
one billion dollars, much of which is almost a 
total loss. The railroads have been hampered 
so much by the destructive acts of all the revolu- 
tionary forces and the depreciation of rolling 
stock that their securities scarcely have a 
market value. English capital is second to that 
of the United States, with a little less than one- 
third that amount. 

The foreign trade of Mexico has run into big 
figures. The total extra-territorial trade of the 
republic, for the year ending June 30th, 1910, 
amounted to $227,456,025 in United States gold. 
Of this amount $130,023,185 represented ex- 
ports and $97,432,890 imports. Of the exports 
$78,260,037 were of mineral products, while 
vegetable products were less than half that 
amount. An analysis of the imports shows by 
far the largest items were included under manu- 
factured articles, such as machinery, textiles, 
chemical products, etc. Arms and explosives 



494: Mexico and Her People To-day 

imported exceeded a million and a half dollars 
in value, thus showing that the government and 
people were even then preparing for the strug- 
gle to follow. By far the largest proportion of 
exports and imports was with the United States. 
Imports from the United States amounted to 
the tidy sum of $56,421,551, an increase of twelve 
million dollars over the preceding year, and 
the exports to the United States were $98,432,- 
859, an increase of almost an equal amount. 
The United Kingdom was the nearest competi- 
tor in the foreign trade with our neighbouring 
republic. Imports from the mother country, 
Spain, were less than three per cent, of the 
whole. To-day the import trade has depreci- 
ated greatly and the statistics are very unsatis- 
factory. The export of certain natural prod- 
ucts, such as chicle, henequen and petroleum, 
has really increased in both volume and value. 
As these are paid for in gold, they have fur- 
nished the sinews of war and have enabled the 
government to keep on going in spite of the gen- 
eral depression and chaotic conditions. What 
foreign trade there was has been mostly with 
Uncle Sam because his European competitors 
have been out of the market. Japan has been 
the only other country actively in the field for 
trade. 



The Mexico of To-day 495 

In the matter of trade, as is shown by the 
trade statistics, the United States is easily the 
predominant factor. It will doubtless always 
be so. The proximity of the country has prob- 
ably been the cause of this, as it has led Ameri- 
cans to investigate the natural resources and in- 
vest money in railroads, mines, public works 
and many other enterprises. The same influence 
could be seen in the banking interests. There 
were a number of very strong banks in Mexico 
prior to the revolution, of which the Banco 
Nacional, or National Bank of Mexico, was the 
most influential. This bank was established in 
1881, at a time when the financial condition of 
the country was anything but prosperous. In 
1893 there were only eight banks in the entire 
republic, but the number had increased many 
fold. The American influence, and the banks 
controlled by Americans, aided greatly in the 
development of business between the two 
countries. 

The increase of manufacturing was quite 
noticeable in the latest years of the Diaz govern- 
ment. Quite a number of cotton factories were 
established in certain sections of the country, 
and the labour was found quite well adapted 
to that class of manufacturing. Establishments 
for the preparation and curing of meats were 



496 Mexico and Her People To-day 

all built under government concessions, while 
tobacco factories, which manufactured the very 
excellent tobacco grown in the country, were 
established in many sections of the coun- 
try. The Mexican tobacco is said by those who 
pose as experts to have a very excellent flavour, 
and by many is claimed to be superior even to 
the Cuban article. The product grown in the 
state of Vera Cruz has the best flavour, but a 
number of other states produce large quantities 
of the fragrant weed. 

The greatest enterprise now operating in 
Mexico, excepting only the railroads, is the 
Mexico Light and Power Company, a Canadian 
corporation. This group of men own the electric 
light and gas plants and the tramways of the 
City of Mexico, Puebla and a number of other 
cities. As a part of their enterprise they have 
built a great dam by means of which the waters 
of the Necaxa River are utilized for the pro- 
duction of the electricity. This is distant 
ninety-six miles to the northeast from the capi- 
tal. Fed by springs, this river becomes a goodly 
sized stream before it plunges over a precipice 
of four hundred and sixty feet, and a short dis- 
tance beyond is one of a still greater fall. The 
main dam is one hundred and ninety-four feet 
high and about one thousand three hundred feet 



The Mexico of To-day 497 

wide, and contains an immense amount of mate- 
rial. It is built of stone and concrete. By 
means of this and the auxiliary dams a valley 
has been made into an immense reservoir so 
that the dry season might be provided for when 
the natural flow of water would be insufficient. 
It is claimed that enough water can be stored 
to run the power plant through two years of 
continual drought. The water is carried to the 
turbines by means of pipes which pierce the 
mountain, bringing to each turbine a stream of 
water six feet in diameter, carrying all the 
force of a drop exceeding one thousand feet. 
The total transmission lines reach a length of 
more than two hundred miles, and the capacity 
of the plant is two hundred and fifty thousand 
horse power. At the present time this company 
supplies all the electric power in the capital, as 
well as other towns and several mining enter- 
prises. Its franchise is from the Mexican 
government and is in perpetuity. This simply 
gives an indication of what can be done in the 
development of the natural resources of Mex- 
ico. In a country where fuel is scarce and high 
priced, the value of the water power is accord- 
ingly increased. There are many other water- 
falls awaiting development, and it only needs 
the necessary capital and stable government, 



498 Mexico and Her People To-day 

and a combination, of far-sighted men sucli as 
those who compose the Canadian corporation 
above mentioned, to supply the great need of 
Mexico for cheap and satisfactory power. 

It is doubtless unfortunate for Mexico that 
mining has absorbed almost all of her energies, 
and agriculture has been allowed to drop into 
a secondary position. One cause for this has 
been the Spanish characteristic, as represented 
by the original conquerors, of seeking quick 
wealth instead of attempting to coax out of 
mother earth the treasure that she possesses. 
There are labourers in plenty, if they are prop- 
erly instructed, but the haciendados, as well as 
labourers, adhere to the most primitive methods. 
In most parts of the republic the land is tilled 
just as it was four centuries ago. It is really 
surprising that, in spite of these antiquated 
methods, the results have been as good as they 
are. As mentioned heretofore, the wooden plow 
with a small iron shoe, which merely scratches 
the surface of the earth, is still used ; men may 
be seen cutting wheat with the sickle, and much 
of the threshing is "done by driving horses and 
mules around a ring covered with grain, just 
as it was done in the old Biblical days. The 
winnowing is accomplished by tossing the wheat 
and the chaff into the air, and then the grain is 



The Mexico of To-day 499 



hauled to the haciendas or markets in clumsy 
and ponderous two-wheeled carts. 

A hacienda operated upon modern American 
methods would certainly be a much more profit- 
able enterprise than when conducted after this 
style. In a few sections of the country one will 
find a plantation here and there where some new 
methods have been introduced and American 
machinery employed, but these are rare. Even 
in the Valley of Mexico, not far from the City 
of Mexico, the most antiquated methods will be 
seen employed at all times. The richness of the 
land and its cheapness have caused the floating 
of many land companies in the United States 
in the years that have passed. They can show 
great prospects on paper, but the trouble is 
that many of them were floated by unscrupulous 
men, who cared nothing for the interest of the 
stockholders, but were looking simply for pro- 
moters' profits. When the real buyers reached 
the land they discovered that things were not as 
represented, did not find conditions of living to 
their liking, and in a very short time the whole 
enterprise was dropped. Many lost practically 
all of their savings. These things, of course, 
cannot be entirely guarded against, but they 
certainly fail to prove that Mexico is not a rich 
agricultural countrv. They simply demonstrate 



500 Mexico and Her People To-day 



that fraud can be perpetrated upon people in a 
country where the land is teeming with fertility. 

There has been much criticism heaped upon 
the Mexican courts, and a great deal of it has 
been deserved. The judicial system of Mexico 
is copied rather after the French and Spanish 
than the Anglo-Saxon system. Even in normal 
times it still needed many changes in order to 
bring it up to the twentieth century standards. 
In years past American railroad engineers, who 
were unfortunate enough to run over some one, 
received harsh treatment in Mexican jails. The 
law of incomunicado, by which an accused per- 
son is locked up for three days, is still in force. 
It used to be that a wounded person could not be 
touched or moved before the arrival of the 
authorities, which caused much suffering; but 
this at least has been abolished. The judicial 
system, which includes supreme courts, district 
courts, circuit courts, police courts and other 
minor courts, is intended to give justice to the 
defendant in a criminal action, and to both 
parties in a civil action, but in many cases, to an 
American, the result "does not seem to be satis- 
factory. During the years of revolution mili- 
tary rule has greatly interfered with the civil 
courts in many parts of the republic. 

The jury system is in use in Mexico, and nine 



The Mexico of To-day 501 

persons compose a jury. The jurymen may 
consist of botli natives and foreigners, but the 
members must have some occupation, education 
or independent means. The law provides that 
the accused must be acquainted with the names 
and number of his accusers, and must be con- 
fronted with the witnesses who testify against 
him. The testimony is all taken down in long- 
hand writing, which is a tedious process, as fol- 
lowed out in Mexican courts. In criminal cases 
it is generally read over to the witness and 
signed by him, which method, although it is 
cumbersome, sometimes gives a degree of cer- 
tainty and correctness to the testimony. It is 
true that in many cases the points that are raised 
by the accused are treated with very little con- 
sideration. This is not the fault of the law, but 
is the result of its maladministration by the offi- 
cials, just as similar instances are the world 
over. Arrests of natives are made for all 
sorts of offences, many of which are trivial, and 
they are generally kept in jail for several days 
before they are finally given a hearing. For- 
eigners are usually treated with greater consid- 
eration. Local conditions, public clamour, un- 
settled conditions and other things influence the 
action of courts in Mexico, just as they do in 
every other country. 



502 Mexico and Her People To-day 

In addition to tlie railroad connections the 
steamship lines form a very important part in 
the national transportation of Mexico. The 
long coast line on both the Pacific Ocean and 
Gulf of Mexico provides many ports. Her coast 
line on the Pacific Ocean is about twice that of 
California, Oregon and Washington. Her At- 
lantic coast is as long as our own from Florida 
to Maine. In all there are about five thousand 
miles of sea-coast. This means a great deal in 
the future commercial development of the coun- 
try. To a commercial nation it would afford a 
strategic advantage in international trade. The 
national traffic between the many ports is 
quite a considerable item, but the foreign com- 
merce has been still greater. In pre-war times 
Mexico had direct steamship connection with 
the United States, Canada, Europe, South 
America, Central America, the East Indies and 
the Orient. The principal ports are Tampieo, 
Puerto Mexico (formerly Coatzacoalcos) and 
Progresso on the Gulf, and Salina Cruz, Aca- 
pulco, Manzanillo, and Mazatlan on the Pacific. 
There were in all more than twenty steamship 
lines that had contracts with the government 
for carrying the mails, and nearly all of these 
enjoyed subsidies of large or small amounts or 
enjoyed certain privileges or concessions. 



The Mexico of To-day 503 

The most important steamship company oper- 
ating has been the one known as the Ward 
Line, which operates between several Mexican 
ports, Havana and New York. This company- 
has some very good boats, and does a large 
business between all of these ports. The Mal- 
lory Line, the Mexican- American Line and the 
Munson Line also maintain service between 
Mexican ports, Galveston and New Orleans. 
On the Pacific coast the regular service is 
operated from Seattle down the west coast of 
the United States, Mexico, Central America and 
South America. The Pacific Mail Steamship 
Company operates about three boats a month 
from San Francisco to Panama, where connec- 
tions are made for New York and west coast 
ports of South America. There are also, in 
addition to these mentioned, a number of coast 
lines on both the Pacific and Atlantic side which 
do a considerable traffic between the various 
ports. In order to develop and facilitate this 
coast traffic the Diaz government spent a great 
deal of money in providing harbours and docks 
at a number of the smaller ports, in addition to 
carrying out the larger enterprises that have 
heretofore been described. 

Mexico has not a great number of navigable 
rivers. On the Pacific side the Mayo, the Yaqui, 



504 Mexico and Her People To-day 

the Balsas, the Rio Grande de Santiago and one 
or two others are classed as navigable streams, 
but because of bars and other obstructions they 
can be used only by boats of comparatively light 
draft. On the Atlantic side, just below the 
Isthmus of Tehuantepec, is the Grigalva River, 
which is a broad and imposing stream. Large 
boats ply regularly up this stream to San Juan 
Bautista, a distance of about seventy-five miles. 
Small boats go up still farther, the boat traffic 
extending clear to the mountains. The Usa- 
macimta River is an affluent of this stream, and 
is navigable for small boats even beyond the 
Guatemala border. The Coatzacoalcos River, 
which flows into the Gulf at the town of the 
same name, is quite an important stream, and 
furnishes an outlet to a considerable territory. 
The Papaloapan River, which flows into the 
Gulf of Mexico near Vera Cruz, has been 
dredged and made navigable for a considerable 
distance into the interior. It has proved a great 
benefit to many small towns and plantations 
there situated. 

North of Vera Cruz are the Soto la Marina, 
the Tuxpan and the Panuco Rivers, all of which 
are navigable for a hundred miles or more. As 
an adjunct to the navigable streams and the 
deep-water ports the government is now build- 



The Mexico of To-day 505 

ing an intercoastal canal, which is similar to 
the one being extended along the Gulf coast of 
Louisiana and Texas to connect with the Missis- 
sippi and Rio Grande Rivers. There are a 
series of lagoons and small lakes that lie just a 
short distance within the coast line, and which 
can be connected and deepened. They will then 
form a convenient and safe waterway for navi- 
gation. The government spent several million 
dollars on the first link of this system, which 
will connect the ports of Tampico and Tuxpan, 
a distance of about a hundred miles. This 
waterway has a width of seventy-five feet and a 
uniform depth of ten and one-half feet, and will 
connect the mouths of the Panuco and the Tux- 
pan Rivers. The Panuco, near Tampico, is fifty 
feet deep, and the deepest draft ocean vessels 
can come in and unload at the docks of Tampico. 
The opening of this section of the canal aided 
greatly in the development of this part of the 
coast land, because it placed the products of 
the plantations and ranches within easy reach 
of the markets. It has also served to drain 
thousands of acres of land, which were formerly 
considered to be of no use whatever. On this 
route the canal passes through Lake Tamiahua, 
which is seventy-nine miles long and from five 
to twenty miles wide. Lake Tampamachoco, a 



506 Mexico and Her People To-day 

much smaller lake, will also be traversed by this 
canal. The water in these lakes is compara- 
tively shallow, and it was necessary to deepen 
them considerably in order to make the canal 
of uniform depth. The distance between Tam- 
pico and the mouth of the Eio Grande is about 
three hundred miles, but a number of salt water 
lagoons, which lie near the coast, can be utilized 
as a portion of the canal. If this project, and 
the similar one planned by the United States, 
are fully completed, it will furnish a very long 
inland waterway for the coast region. It will 
serve the double purpose of draining and mak- 
ing more healthful that portion of the country, 
and likewise giving an outlet for the develop- 
ment that will surely follow. The land when 
once drained has proven to be of unusual 
fertility. 

Under the Diaz government the influence of 
the Anglo-Saxon in Mexico was very marked. 
What the English have done in Argentina and 
in many parts of the world, the Americans were 
doing in our neighbouring republic. It is a 
significant fact that the Spanish influence had 
been perceptibly disappearing, while that of the 
Anglo-Saxon was in the ascendency. This 
change could be noted in a great many ways, 
both in thought, customs and foreign relations. 



The Mexico of To-day 507 

This transition was strongly objected to by the 
extreme conservative elements. Many of the 
Mexicans prominent in the political and business 
life recognized this trend and encouraged it, for 
they felt that Mexico needed Anglo-Saxon meth- 
ods and ideas in order to develop the country 
and give it the prestige that its importance de- 
served. There were perhaps twenty or twenty- 
five thousand Americans who permanently re- 
sided in Mexico, before the revolution; there 
was also the effect of the many millions of 
American money invested in the country, and 
the thousands of tourists and business men who 
annually crossed the borders. 

There is undoubtedly a strong prejudice 
against the American and his methods to-day in 
many parts of Mexico, for this feeling has been 
greatly intensified during the recent revolution. 
It is not to be wondered at that such a feeling 
exists. From first to last Mexico has ceded to the 
United States almost one million square miles 
of territory, which is almost one-third more 
than the present dimensions of the republic. 
First came the separation of Texas, which was 
undoubtedly due to the intriguing of Americans 
who had crossed over into that section of Mex- 
ico. These pioneers and adventurers brought 
about the declaration of independence by the 



508 Mexico and Her People To-day- 
Lone Star State. A few years later that terri- 
tory was admitted into the United States as one 
of its integral parts. Then came the Mexican 
War, which most of ns admit was an unjust 
war, and which resulted in the cession of more 
than half a million of square miles of territory. 
A few years later by the Gadsden Purchase, 
which was due to disputes over the boundary 
line, another block of territory as large as the 
state of Ohio was added to the domain of the 
United States. 

In the revolution of 1910 many Americans 
crossed the border, joined the forces of the revo- 
lutionists, and aided in the troubles of the then 
existing government. Furthermore, many 
American tourists who visited Mexico have 
made themselves disagreeable by their actions 
and their criticisms, which also added to the 
anti- American feeling. Many include all Mexi- 
cans under the general title of '' greasers," 
and can see no good in anything that is not 
American. It is a fortunate thing that the good 
people of Mexico understand very little Eng- 
lish ; otherwise they would frequently be excited 
to anger, if they could understand the remarks 
that are made by Americans in visiting their 
churches, battlefields and other places sur- 
rounded by what are to them sacred associa- 



The Mexico of To-day 509 

tions. They are not fools, however, and even if 
they do not understand the words they can catch 
the trend of remarks by the gesture and laugh 
that accompany them. As the Spanish race are 
exceedingly sensitive, this lack of sympathy and 
almost open contempt could not result other- 
wise than in injury to a general good feeling. 

Some Americans grumble at everything, get 
mad because all the waiters and porters do not 
understand English, complain about the hotels 
because they cannot obtain everything just as 
they would in a Fifth Avenue hotel, and, in fact, 
find fault with everything that they see. As a 
contrast to this one might consider the attitude 
of Mexicans. All of these things are taken ad- 
vantage of by the political demagogues and sen- 
sational writers who are found in Mexico as well 
as in the United States. You can murder his 
beloved Spanish in attempting to address a 
Mexican, and he will listen with infinite patience 
and never a smile of amusement or expression 
of vexation on his face. The Mexican is polite 
not only to his superiors and equals, but to his 
servants as well. 

The hostile feeling toward the United States 
has not been lessened any by the events of recent 
years. The Vera Cruz landing was an act of 
war on our part, as was the Pershing expedi- 



510 Mexico and Her People To-day 

tion, which penetrated into Mexico almost four 
hundred miles. We know that the Pershing 
expedition was absolutely justified, but it is 
hard to convince the Mexican, with his racial 
pride. Much of this pride is false, but it is in- 
bred through generations of tradition and en- 
vironment, and must be taken into consideration 
in considering a Mexican policy and Mexican 
questions. Although Carranza's success was 
undoubtedly largely due to the direct and indi- 
rect support of the American government, he 
has never shown any appreciation for it. Both 
Villa and Carranza have been costly proteges 
for us. To eliminate the one we were obliged 
to commit an act of war and send several thou- 
sand troops into Mexico at a cost of scores of 
American lives. To subdue the arrogance of 
the other we were obliged to mobilize more than 
one hundred thousand of our National Guard 
on the border and maintain them there for many 
months. The money cost has run up into the 
hundreds of millions. 

In the great world war the position of Mex- 
ico has been enigmatical. Although no overt 
acts have been uncovered, there is every indica- 
tion that the secret sympathies of the Carranza 
government have been with Germany. Carranza 
projected himself into world diplomacy in 1916 



The Mexico of To-day 511 

by proposing that all the republics of the Amer- 
icas join in a refusal to export all foodstuffs to 
the warring nations of Europe. This was evi- 
dently inspired by Berlin, for it could only affect 
her enemies. Luis Cabrera, seemingly the chief 
adviser of Carranza, has shown himself entirely 
out of sympathy with the United States in all 
the dealings between the two nations, and he 
has taken part in all. The famous Zimmermann 
note, made public March 1, 1917, showed that 
Germany had sensed the undercurrent of Mexi- 
can feelings and looked upon Mexico as fertile 
ground in which to arouse an antipathy to the 
United States in the event that hostilities be- 
tween the two countries arose. We should have 
expected far more consideration and sympathy 
from the man who owes so much to the govern- 
ment at Washington. It is only another proof 
that gratitude is a rare characteristic in nations 
as well as in individuals. 

The republic of Mexico has passed through 
dark days. It has suffered from the evil gov- 
ernment of foreigners and from the reckless 
ambitions of its own rulers. The burdens of 
former mistakes still remain, and there is a 
lingering distrust of the powerful republic to 
the north in many places. This distrust has 
been fanned into greater intensity by recent 



512 Mexico and Her People To-day 

political agitators. The good sense of the lead- 
ers will eventually re-assert itself, however, and 
a more perfect understanding will surely result. 
American intelligence and capital have done too 
much in bringing about the material prosperity 
of the country for such conditions to exist per- 
manently. Mexico needs capital for the devel- 
opment of her resources, and American capital 
is most available for that purpose. Americans 
will ever be interested in the moral and mate- 
rial advancement of their neighbours across the 
Eio Grande. 

Mexico is still far from being exhausted. She 
is still rich in material resources and potential 
wealth. She can produce practically everything 
in minerals, metals, forest and agricultural 
products necessary for the maintenance and 
prosperity of a nation. A few years of peace 
could make her almost self-sustaining. The 
more valuable metals, such as gold, silver, cop- 
per and lead, still exist in almost unmeasurable 
quantities. In the decade from 1905 to 1914 the 
petroleum production grew from three hundred 
thousand to twenty-six million barrels. In 1917 
the shipments were almost four millions of bar- 
rels a month from Tampico and Tuxpan alone. 
In agriculture there are tremendous possibili- 
ties. With the variety of climate almost every- 



The Mexico of To-day 513 

thing is capable of cultivation. For tMs reason 
we must not lose sight of Mexico. When normal 
conditions return Mexico will sell her natural 
products to the United States in increasing 
quantities, and will desire in return greater 
amounts of our manufactured products. These 
will include machinery of every kind, agricul- 
tural implements, motor vehicles, textile goods, 
chemical products, wearing apparel and every 
kind of railway supply and equipment. The 
imports of a few years ago will be doubled and 
quadrupled within a decade after peace and 
tranquillity are restored. Mexico 's foreign debt 
is not large at present, and this will be a fortu- 
nate circumstance when the period of recon- 
struction is reached. 

To the reader who has followed this narrative 
to the end, I give my valediction, a la Mexicana: 
Adios! Vaya usted con Dios. 



THE END. 



APPENDICES 



The following table gives the area and pop- 
ulation of the various states, territories of 
Tepie, Quintana Eoo and Lower California, and 
the Federal District ; also the name of the cap- 
ital and number of its inhabitants, the figures 
being for the year 1900: — 



state. 


8q. Biles. 


Popalatlon. 


Capital. Inkabltants. 


Aguas Calientes, 


2,950 


101,910 


Aguas Calientes, 


35,052 


Campeche, 


20,087 


84,218 


Campeche, 


17,109 


Coahuila, 


63,569 


280,899 


Saltillo, 


23,936 


Colima, 


2,700 


65,026 


Colima, 


20,698 


Chiapas, 


29,600 


363,216 


Tuxtla, 


10,982 


Chihuahua, 


87,802 


327,004 


Chihuahua, 


30,405 


Durango, 


42,200 


371,274 


Durango, 


31,092 


Guanajuato, 


12,300 


1,065,317 


Guanajuato, 


41,486 


Guerrero, 


24,996 


474,594 


Chilpanzingo, 


7,497 


Hidalgo, 


8,917 


603,074 


Pachuca, 


37,487 


Jalisco, 


31,846 


1,137,311 


Guadalajara, 


101,208 


Mexico, 


9,247 


924,457 


Toluca, 


25,904 


Michoacan, 


22,874 


935,849 


Morelia, 


37,278 


Morelos, 


2,773 


161,697 


Cuernavaca, 


9,584 


Nuevo Leon, 


23,592 


326,940 


Monterey, 


62.266 


Oaxaca, 


35,382 


947,910 


Oaxaca, 


35,049 


Puebla, 


12,204 


1,024,446 


Puebla, 


93,521 


Queretaro, 


3,556 


228,489 


Queretaro, 


33,152 


San Luis Potosi, 


25,316 


582,486 


San Luis Potosi, 


61,019 


Sinaloa, 


33,671 


296,109 


Culiacan, 


10,380 


Sonora, 


76,900 


220,553 


Hermosillo, 


10,613 


Tabasco, 


10,072 


158,107 

515 


San Juan Bautista, 


10,543 



516 


Appendices 




state. 


Sq, Utiles. 


Population. 


Capital. 


Inhabitanta. 


Tamaulipas, 


32,128 


220,253 


Victoria, 


10,086 


Tlaxcala, 


1,595 


172,217 


Tiaxcala, 


2,847 


Vera Cruz, 


29,201 


960,570 


Jalapa, 


20,388 


Yucatau, 


20,203 


227,264 


Merida, 


43,630 


Zacatecas, 


24,757 


496,810 


Zacatecas, 


32,856 


Tepic, 


11,257 


149,677 


Tepic, 


15,488 


Lower California, 


68,328 


47,082 


La Paz, 


5,046 


Federal District, 


463 


530,723 


City of Mexico, 


344,721 


Quintana Roo. 


15.000 


85,000 


Santa Cruz de Bravo, 2,000 



II 

The broken character of the surface of Mex- 
ico is shown by the many high mountain peaks 
which are scattered over the country. Most 
of these peaks are extinct volcanoes, although 
one of them, Colima, is in constant eruption. 
The following table gives the name, location 
and height of all the peaks over ten thousand 
feet in height : — 

Mountain. State. Elevation, 

Popocatepetl, Mexico, 17,782 ft. 

Orizaba, Vera Cruz, 17,362 ft. 

Ixtaccihuatl, Puebla, 16,060 ft. 

Toluca, Mexico, 15,019 ft. 

Colima, Jalisco, 14,263 ft. 

Ajusco, Federal District, 18,650 ft. 

Cofre de Perote, Vera Cruz, 13,641 ft, 

Zapotlan, Jalisco, 12,743 ft, 

Tancitaro, Michoacan, 12,653 ft. 

Zempoaltepec, Oaxaca, 11,141 ft. 

Pico de Quinco, Michoacan, 10,900 ft. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 



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Bancroft, Hubeet Hotte: History of Mexico. 6 vols. San 

Francisco, 1888. 

History of Mexico. New York, 1914. 

Bandelier, a. F.: Report of an Archeological Tour. Boston, 

1885. 
Barron, C. W.: The Mexican Problem. Boston, 1917. 
Batchelder, Roger: Watching and Waiting on the Border. 

Boston, 1917. 
t' Beart, Ltjcien: The Aztecs, their History, Manners and Cus- 
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»^Bishop, W. H.: Old Mexico and her Lost Provinces. New 

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1849. 
i^Charnat, Desir^: Ancient Cities of the New World. Trans- 
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1883. 
Creelman, James: Diaz: Master of Mexico. New York, 1910. 
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Edwards, William Seymour: On the Mexican Highlands. 

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Honduras. New York, 1916. 
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1910. 
GoocH, Fannie C: Face to Face with the Mexicans. New 

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S17 



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Griffin, S. B.: Mexico of To-day. New York, 1886. 
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Mexico. New York, 1875. 
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New Spain, London, 1822, 
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1899. 
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1907. 
Noll, A. H.: A Short History of Mexico. Chicago, 1903, 
Obeb, Fhedeeick a.: Travels in Mexico. Boston, 1885. 
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Diplomatic Days. New York, 1917. 

Palmer, Frederick: Central America and Its Problems. New 

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Wallace, Dillon: Beyond the Mexican Sierras. Chicago, 1910. 



INDEX 



Acapulco, 99, 299, 382, 502. 

Agave Americana, 41. 

Agriculture, 498-500. 

Aguador (water carrier), 221. 

Agua miel (honey-water), 43. 

Aguas Calientes, 36, 219, 298, 
432. 

Ahuehuete (cypress) of Cha- 
pultepec, 86; of Popotla, 
78 ; of Tule, 153. 

Alameda, The, 56, 69. 

Alamo, Battle of the, 360. 

Alcabales, Abolishment of, 
293. 

Alhondiga de Granaditas, The, 
of Guanajuato, 348, 349. 

Altata, 461. 

Alvaredo, Pedro, 279. 

American Capital in Mexico, 
280. 

American Colony, 53 

Anahuac, Valley of, 74 et seq. 

Apam, Plain of, 41, 91. 

Aqueduct of Oaxaca, 116; of 
Queretero, 35. 

Architecture, Mexican, 47, 
271-273. 

Army, The Mexican, 334-337. 

Art in Mexico, 270. 

Auto-da-fe, The first, 345. 

Aztecs, History of the, 11, 75; 
Subjugation of, 14-16; De- 
scendants of, 183 et seq.; 
Markets of, 217-218; Cele- 
brations of, 235. 

Balsas River, 504. 
Banana, Culture of the, 106- 
108, 463. 



Baptism of Indians, 309. 
Baptist Missions, 324-326. 
Bargaining, 125, 220. 
Barra, Francisco de la, 406. 
Bear, Playing the, 48, 170-172. 
Beggars, Mexican, 242, 340. 
Belem, Prison of, 317. 
Boca del Monte, 91. 
Bonanzas (meaning mines 

worked at great profit), 275 

et seq. 
Books, first printed in Mexico, 

259. 
Borda, Joseph de la, 276. 
Buena Vista, Battle of, 27. 
Bull-fight, 243 et seq. 
Bull-ring, 245. 



Cabrera, Luis, 511. 

Cacao, 105, 109. 

Campo Santo, 63. 

Capitals, Population of the, 

515-516. 
Carbajal, Francisco, 428-430. 
Cargadors (burden-bearers), 

195-199. 
Carranza, Venustiano, 418, 

419, 422, 424, 428, 429, 430, 

431, 432. 435, 436, 439, 441, 

442, 443, 446, 510, 511, 519. 
Carrizal, 443, 444. 
Cart, Mexican, 120. 
Casa (meaning home), 163, 

210-211. 
Casas Grandes, 403, 440, 457. 
Cathedral of Capital, 60, 321- 

323. 
Catorce, 283, 330. 



519 



520 



Index 



Cattle ranches, 36, 128, 449- 


Cock-fighting, 33. 


451. 


Coffee culture, 94, 106, 463. 


Celava, 297, 298, 434. 


Colonia Juarez, 457. 


Celebrations in honour of the 


Comonfort, President, 315. 


Virgin of Guadalupe, 236 


Congregational Missions, 324- 


et seq. 


326. 


Cemeteries, 63. 


Congress, First Mexican, 350; 


Centennial of Independence, 


Second, 354; of to-day, 18. 


1910, 73, 396-398. 


Conquest, Manner of the, 14- 


Central Railway, 297-299. 


16, 77. 


Cerro (a hill) de las Cam- 


Conquistadores (conquerors). 


panas, 35. 


Vandalism and nature of. 


Chalco, Lake, 74. 


13. 


Chamber of Deputies, The, 


Contrasts, A land of, 45. 


18. 


Copper, Production of, 228. 


Chapala, Lake, 9. 


Cordillerias, The, 26. 


Chapultepec, 86 ; military 


Cordoba, 94, 301; Treaty of. 


academy, 337. 


353. 


Chiapas, State of, 304. 


Corral, Hon. Ramon, 405. 


Chichen Itza, 473-479. 


Cortez, 77, 111; Defeat of, 78; 


Chihuahua, City of, 36, 298, 


as governor, 343; Landing 


405, 436, 445, 449-451 ; State 


of, 95; and his followers, 


of, 36, 398, 401, 447, 456; 


13-16. 


Execution of Hidalgo at, 


Cosmopolitan character of 


349. 


City of Mexico, 59. 


Chilpantzingo, 350. 


Coyoacan, 85. 


Chinampas, or floating gar- 


Creole, The, 51, 162; women. 


dens, 82. 


165-166. 


Cholula, 78, 148; Pyramid of, 


Cuautla, Battle of, 350. 


113, 149, 150. 


Cuernevaca, 299. 


Chorubusco, 362. 


Cuilapa, 358. 


Christmas celebrations, 227- 


Cuitzeo, Lake, 9. 


232. 


Culiacan, 422, 461. 


Churches, Mexican, 271-273. 


Curandera (native doctor). 


Church, The Mexican, 308 et 


222-224. 


seq. 


Currency reform, 492. 


Cineo de Mayo, Victory of, 37, 


Customs, Domestic, 167 ; 


374 ; Street of, 50. 


Strange, 201 et seq.; offi- 


Ciudad Juarez, 401, 402, 404, 


cials, polite, 22. 


405, 448-456. 


Cypress of Noche Triste, 78; 


Climate of the Capital, 54-55; . 


of Chapultepec, 86; of Tule, 


Variety of, 8; of Oaxaca, 


153. 


123. 




Coahuila, State of, 27. 


Denouncing a mining claim. 


Coal, 288-289. 


287. 


Coatzacoalcos, 99, 137, 139, 


Desierto, El, 85. 


502. 


Diaz, Bernal, 262. 


Coatzacoalcos River, 504. 


Diaz, Felix. 416, 417. 



Index 



521 



Diaz, Porfirio, 18-19; Birth- 
place of, 116; and educa- 
tion, 264; encouragement of 
railroads, 296; and Prot- 
estantism, 325 ; organizes 
Burales, 331-333; Sketch 
of, 360 et seq.; Revolution 
against, 396 et seq., 415. 

Diego Juan, Vision of, 236- 
238. 

Dolores Hidalgo, 34, 347. 

Douglas, 402. 

Dude, The Mexican, 57. 

Dulces (Mexican candy), 220. 

Durango, 36, 278; Mountain 
of iron in, 288; State of, 
447. 

Easter, Celebration of, 232- 

234. 
Education in Mexico, 257 et 

seq.; of soldiers, 335. 
Ejutla, 283. 
El Paso, 401, 404, 448. 
Embrace, A Mexican, 47. 
English language, Teaching 

of, 267. 
Ensenada, 466. 
Esperanza, 91. 
Evangelista (letter-writer ) , 

220. 
Exclusiveness of Mexicans, 

164, 210. 
Exports and imports, 493-494. 

Farming in the tropics, 106; 

Antiquated, 123, 498. 
Feasts and festivals, 225 et 

seq. 
Feather work, Aztec, 218. 
Federal District, Schools of, 

265. 
Ferrocarriles Mexicanos, 294 

et seq. 
Fibre-producing plants, 40. 
Fiesta, 100, 225; at Oaxaca, 

117; at Guadalupe, 236 et 

seq.; de las Flores, 235. 



Finances of Mexico, 492. 
Floating gardens, 82-84. 
Flower market, The, 67. 
Frijoles, 216. 
Funeral Cars, 62. 

Garza, Gen. Roque Gonzales, 

433, 434. 

Germans, Affiliation of, 38. 
Goat raising, 449. 
Gold of Aztecs, 285; Produc- 
tion of, 288. 
Gomez, Vasquez, 410. 
Gondola, The Mexican, 82. 
Gonzalez, Manuel, 384. 
Graphite, 289. 
Grasshoppers as food, 81. 
Grigalva River, 504. 
Grito, The, 347. 
Guadalajara, 37, 219, 299, 428, 

434, 458-460. 
Guadalupe, Town of, 240-242; 

Church of, 238; Virgin of, 

236-242. 
Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Treaty of, 

363. 
Guanajuato, 36, 277, 283; 

Battle at, 348, 383. 
Guatemala City, Bull fight in, 

252; Earthquake in, 260; 

Theatre of, 284. 
Guatemotzin, eleventh and 

last Aztec Emperor, 78. 
Guaxaca [See Oaxaca). 
Guaymas, 99, 301, 460. 
Guerrero, The patriot, 352, 

357. 
Gutierrez, Eulalio, 432, 433. 

liacendado, The, 28, 52. 
Hacienda, The, 27-39, 498-499; 

of Mitla, 124-128; of Zu- 

loaga, 450-452; Labour on, 

189. 
Henequen, 40-41. 
Hermosillo, 301, 459-460. 
Hidalgo, Miguel, 347-349, 392, 

397. 



522 



Index 



Hidalgo Railway, 297. 
Holidays, 190, 225 et seq. 
Home, Regard for, 163, 210. 
Horsemen, Mexican, 57. 
Huamantla, 381. 
Huerta, Victoriano, 417-421, 

425-429, 510. 
Huitzilopoxtli, 308. 

Iglesias, 382-383, 387, 388. 

Improvements, Contemplated, 
in Capital, 71-73. 

Independence, Declaration of, 
350. 

Indians, 183 et seq., 453-456; 
habits and characteristics, 
58; of the hotlands, 103; 
cargadors, 195-199; mar- 
ket, 120-122; Independent 
tribe of, 115; miners, 280. 

Inquisition, Establishment of 
the, 345. 

International Railway, 297. 

Interoceanic Railway, 297. 

Irapuato, 298, 299. 

Iron, 288. 

Irrigation, Benefits of, 39. 

Iturbide, Agustin de, 352-356; 
Hotel, 356. 

Ixtaccihuatl, Volcano of, 87, 
113. 

Ixtlan, 373. 

Ixtle, 23. 

Jails, 500-501. 

Japanese, Resemblance of 
Mexicans to, 10. 

Jardenas flotandas, 82-84. 

Jesuits, The, 258. 

Juarez, Benito, Birthplace of, 
116; attitude toward edu- 
cation, 264; crushes tem- 
poral power of the Church, 
315; favours Diaz, 371; 
sketch of career, 364-368, 
388. 

Judas, Burning of, 233. 

Judicial Rystem, 500-501. 



Labourers, Mexican, 183 et 
seq. 

Lajartija (Mexican dude), 57. 

La Paz, 466-468. 

Las Madres, 447. 

Lead, 289. 

Legal customs, 207-209. 

Leon, 36, 298. 

Leperos, 339, 340. 

Lerdo, 368, 379, 382, 385, 387, 
388. 

Liberty Bell, The, of Mexico, 
69. 

Library, National, 269. 

Limantour, Minister of Fi- 
nance, 298. 

Literary men, 262 et seq. 

Literature, Mexican, 258 et 
seq. 

Lovemaking, Mexican, 170- 
172. . 

Lower California, 306, 463, 



Madero Family, 400, 411. 
Madero, Francisco, 400, 401, 

403, 404, 406-408, 410-421, 

467. 
Madrid, Bull-ring of, 244; 

Bull-fight in, 253. 
Magdalena, 458. 
Magdalena Bay, 467. 
Maguey, 41-45. 
Mai Paso, 400. 
Maltrata, 92. 

Manana, The Land of, 204. 
Manzanillo, 99, 299, 428, 502. 
Markets, Ancient, 217-218; of 

capital, 218; of Oaxaca, 117- 

119; of Tehuantepec, 132. 
Marsh-flies as food, 81. 
Matamoros, 380. 
Maximilian, 264, 315, 366-367, 

390; Execution of, 34-35. 
Mayas, The, 470 et seq. 
Mayo River, 503. 
Mazatlan, 99, 279, 422, 461- 

462, 502. 



Index 



523 



Mendoza, Viceroy, 258, 344. 
Merchants, Aztec, 329. 
Mesas, 26. 

Mescal (native brandy), 45. 
Mestizos, 184. 
Metate, 178, 215. 
Methodist Missions, 324, 326. 
Mexican, Conservatism of, 52, 
174; his view of Anglo- 
Saxon, 20. 
Mexican Central Railway, 80, 

297-299. 
Mexican National Railway, 
Route of, 24 et seq., 297-298. 
Mexican races. Origin of, 10. 
Mexican Railway, 90 et seq., 

299. 
Mexican Southern Railway, 

112-114, 300. 
Mexico, Antiquity of, 3; Re- 
sources of, 19; The United 
States of, 18. 
Minaca, 452. 
Mines of Mexico, 274 et seq., 

460, 466. 
Missions, Protestant, in Mex- 
ico, 324-327. 
Mitla, Village of, 152; Ruins 
of, 152 et seq.; Hacienda of, 
124-127, 154. 
Molino del Rey (the king's 

mill), 88, 363. 
Monte de Piedad, 61. 
Monte las Cruces, Battle of, 

349= 
Monterey, 24-25, 297, 299, 434, 

449; Battle of, 25. 
Montezuma, 199. 
Moon, Pyramid of the, 147. 
Morelas, Jose Maria, 350-352. 
Morelia, 268, 351, 352. 
Mormon Colony, 457-458. 
Mountains, 24, '47 et seq. 
Museum, National, 269. 

Nahuals, 75. 

National Palace, The, 322. 

National Railway, 297. 



Navarro, General, 404-405, 

Newman, 429. 

Newspapers and periodicals, 

260-261. 
Noche Bueno, 227. 
Noche Triste, Tree of, 78. 
Nochistongo cut, 80. 
No es costumbre, 213-214. 
Nogales, 402, 458. 
No hay, 220. 
"Northers," The, 7, 98. 
Notaries, Mexican, 209. 
Nuevo Laredo, 434. 
Nuevo Leon, State of, 24. 

Oaxaca, III et seq., 300, 371, 

381; Markets of, 117-119; 

Valley of. 111, 151-152; 

Mines of, 283. 
Obregon, Gen., 428, 430, 433, 

442. 
O'Donaju, Viceroy, 353. 
Ojinaga, 400. 
Ofiate, Juan de, 276. 
Oranges, 109, 463. 
Orient, Resemblance to, 1-3, 

121-123. 
Oriental habits of women, 162. 
Orizaba, 93, 366; Volcano of, 

91, 113. 
Orozco, Pascual, 404-405, 415, 

416. 

Pachuca, 282, 297, 405, 433. 
Padilla, 355. 

Palace, The National, 68-69, 
Palenque, 473, 483-487. 
Palo Alto, Battle of, 361. 
Panama Canal, A competitor 

of, 136 et seq. 
Pan-American Railroad, 303- 

305. 
Panuco River, 504, 505. ^~- 
Papaloapan River, 504. 
Parral, 441. 

Paseo de la Reforma, 56, 69, 
Pateon of Guanajuato, 284; 

National, 72. 



524 



Index 



Patio (courtyard) in houses, 

47. 
Patio process, 279, 281. 
Patzcuaro, Lake, 9, 270. 
Pawnshop, The National, 61. 
Peon, The, 183 et seq.; as a 

soldier, 334-335, 431. 
Peonage, 188-189, 191-192, 300. 
Pershing, Gen. John J., 440, 

443. 
Pertenencia, a mining claim, 

287. 
Petroleum, Production of, 289, 
Piedad, Monte de, 277. 
Pijijiapam, 304. 
Pinate, Breaking the, 231-232. 
Plateaus, The, 26, 295. 
Plaza Mayor, 68; de Toros, 

245. 
Poets and poetry, Mexican, 

262-264. 
Police, The, 336, 341. 
Politeness, 209. 
Popocatapetl, 87, 89, 113. 
Popotla, Village of, 78. 
Poppies, Feast of the, 235. 
Population of Mexico, 9; of 

states and capitals, 515-516. 
Posadas, The, 228-232. 
Pottery, Mexican, 119, 219. 
Presbyterian Missions, 324, 

326. 
Printing Press, First, 259. 
Prisons, schools in, 267. 
Procrastination, A land of, 

203-205. 
Progresso, 502. 
Protestantism in Mexico, 317, 

324-327. 
Puebla, 37-39, 113, 297, 383, 

398, 407; city of churches, 

321 ; house of the inquisi- 
tion in, 345 ; Battles at, 374, 

378, 434. 
Pulque, 41, 66; shop, 65-67. 
Pyramid of Cholula, 113, 149, 

150; of the Sun, 147; of the 

Moon, 147. 



Queretero, 34, 298. 
Quetzalcoatl, 149, 235. 

Railroads, Mexican, 143, 290 

et seq., 449-450. 
Rainfall, 102, 435, 450, 467. 
Real del Monte, Mines of, 282. 
Rebosa, 59. 
Regla, Count of, 277; Mines 

of, 282. 
Religion of Mexico, 308 et seq. 
Reyes, Barnardo, 407-408, 415, 

416. 
Rincon, Antonio, 138. 
Rio Grande de Santiago, 504. 
Robbers and bandits of former 

days, 328-333. 
Ruins of Yucatan, 146, 472 et 

seq.; of Mitla, 152 et seq. 
Rurales, 331-334, 336. 

Sagrario Metropolitano, 

Church of, 321-322. 
Saint, Mexico's patron, 236. 
Saint days, 191. 
Salina Cruz, 99, 137, 139 et 

seq. 
Saltillo, 27, 297, 428. 
San Antonio, Texas, 22. 
San Benito, 305. 
San Bias, 99. 
San Cristobal, Lake, 74. 
San Cristobal Eeatepec, 351. 
San Geronimo, 304. 
San Juan Bautista, 504. 
San Juan de Ulua, Fort of, 98, 

356. 
San Juan Teotihuacan, He- 
San Lorenzo, 434. 
San Luis Potosi, City of, 30 

et seq., 297, 299; State of, 

30. 
Santa Anita, Village of, 83. 
Santa Anna, General, 354, 

359-364; Burial place of, 

239. 



Index 



525 



Santa Lucrecia, 131, 301. 


Tehuantepec, Isthmus of, 128, 


Santa Ysabel, 436, 437. 


289 et seq., 504; Town of. 


School of fine arts, 270. 


132-134; Women of, 180- 


Schools, Public, 264-266. 


181; National Railway, 136 


Scott, General, in Mexico, 


et seq., 301. 


361, 363. 


Tejada, Lerdo de {See Lerdo). 


Seasons, Only two, 7. 


Temperature of the tropics. 


Senate, The, 18. 


100, 102; of the capital, 54. 


Senoritas, 169. 


Tenochtitlan, The ancient 


Serenos, 342. 


capital, 49. 


Sheep Raising, 449. 


Teocalli, the Aztec, 60, 323. 


Shoemaker, Mexican, 221. 


Tepic, 447, 460, 463. 


Silver, 275 et seq.j Production 


Tequila (native brandy), 45. 


of, 287. 


Texcoco, Lake, 49, 74, 81; 


Sinaloa, State of, 447, 460-463. 


Town of, 85. 


Society in the capital, 53. 


Thieves, 338-342. 


Soldiers, Schools for, 267. 


Tia Juana, 401-402, 466-407. 


Sonora, State of, 398, 447, 459. 


Tierra Blanca, 130. 


Soto la Marina, 504. 


Tierra caliente, 7, 94, 100-105, 


Southern Pacific Railway, 301. 


128. 


States, The, of Mexico, 18; 


Tierra fria, 6, 25. 


Area and population of. 


Tierra templada, 7, 93. 


515-516. 


Tlacochahuaya, 154. 


Steamship Lines, 502-504. 


Tlacolulu, 154. 


Streets of the capital, 50. 


Tolpetlac, Village of, 236. 


Suarez, Jose Maria Pino, 410, 


Toltecs, 12, 75; Gods of the. 


411. 


308. 


Sugar cane, 109, 461. 


Topo Chico, Springs of, 25. 


Sun, Pyramid of, 147. 


Topolobambo, 450. 


Sunday, a day of pleasure, 57. 


Torreon, 298, 400, 405, 424, 

446. 
Tortillas, Making of, 178, 215. 


Tablelands, 26. 


Tacuba, 85. 


Transition, The, in Mexico, 


Tacudaya, 85. 


491 et seq. 


Tajo de Nochistongo, 80. 


Trevino, Gen., 442, 443. 


Tamales, 216. 


Tropics, Vegetation of, 94, 


Tamiahua, Lake, 505. 


100, 133; Need 6f, 110; 


Tampamachoco, Lake, 505. 


Railroading in, 301-303. 


Tampico, 99, 289, 424, 425, 428, 


Tula, 471. 


434, 502, 512. 


Tule, Big Tree of, 153. 


Taotl, an Aztec god, 308. 


Tuxpan, 512. 


Tarahumari Indians, 453-456. 


Tuxpan River, 504, 505. 


Tasco, 277. 


Tzintzuntzan, 270. 


Taylor, General, Invasion by. 




24 et seq.; at Palo Alto, 


United States, War with, 359, 


361. 


363, 413-447, 


Tecoac, 382. 


Usamacimta River, 504. 


Tehuacan, 114. 


Uxmal, 473, 480-4F3. 



526 



Index 



Valenciana, Conde de, 277. 

Valley of Mexico, View of, 35, 
79, 87. 

Vera Cruz, 95-97, 297, 366, 
387, 391; Fall of, 363; Es- 
cape of Diaz, at, 380. 

Vera Cruz and Pacific Rail- 
way, 131, 301. 

Victoria, 422. 

Victoria Guadalupe, first pres- 
ident, 356. 

Viga canal, 82-84, 235. 

Villa Reyes, Great hacienda 
of, 29. 

Villa, Francisco, 422, 423, 424, 
428, 430, 432, 433, 434, 436, 
438, 439, 440, 445. 

Volcanoes, Height of, 516. 

Vomito, 95-96. 

Wages of miners, 287; of 

labourers, 188. 
Wheat, Introduction of, 39. 
Woman, 133, 162 et seq.; The 

Creole, 165-166. 



Xaltocan, Lake, 74. 
Xochimilco, Lake, 74. 

Yaqui Indians, 459. 

Yaqui River, 503. 

Yellow Fever, 95-96. 

Young Men's Christian Asso- 
ciation, 327. 

Yucatan, Ruins of, 146, 472 
et seq.; Railways in, 306. 

Zacatecas, 36, 282, 298, 428. 
Zambrano, a Mexican miner, 

276. 
Zapata, Emiliano, 415, 422, 

430, 432, 433. 
Zapotec Indians, 160. 
Zaragossa, General, Victory 

of, 37. 
Zocalo,.The, 67, 68, 231. 
Zopilotes (buzzards), 97. 
Zuloaga Hacienda, 450, 452. 
Zumarraga, Bishop, 258. 
Zumpango, Lake, 74, 79. 



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